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FAMILY AND SCHOOL HISTORY OF AMERICA 


TUTTLE’S 

NEW HISTORY OF AMERICA 


AN 


niSTOKICAL AND DESCEIPTIVE TREASURY OF THE COUN¬ 
TRIES OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA. 


Illustrated with Portraits, Battle Scenes, Historical Incidents, etc. 


BT 


CHAHLES R. TUTTLE, 

* t 

Author of “ History of the Northwest,” “ History of Border Wars of Two 
Centuries,” Histories of the States of Michigan, Indiana, 
Wisconsin, Iowa, Kansas, etc. 


SCOPE OF THE WORK: 


Tub United States; 
Dominion of Canada, and 
British Dependencies; 
West Indies; 


Republic op Mexico; 

Countries op Central America 
Countries op South America; 
And Adjacent Islands. 


SOLD ONLY BY CANVASSING AGENTS. 

I 


w 


MADISON, WIS.: 

PUBLISHED BY INTER-STATE BOOK COMPANY,.-- 

1876. 




Copy Right. 

C. K. TUTTLE. 
1876. 


\ 


/ 



f 



Stereotyped and Printed by 
Atwood & Culver, Madison, Wls, 


Manufactured by 
W. J. Park & Co., Madison, WlB, 



PREFACE 


It is admitted, almost universally, that there is a lamentable 
deficiency in historical knowledge among the families of Amer¬ 
ica, and the fact is by no means confined to the poor, who are 
unable to purchase books, or to the non-reading classes. It 
arises, not from a general disrelish for the incidents and events 
of history, for it must be true that, as a rule, these are preferable 
to the mass of poor fiction now thrust upon the intelligence of 
the country; but it is because the works of American history 
presented are, for the most part, too lengthy, and, therefore, 
tedious. To become, in any large degree, acquainted with even 
the history of the United States, one is compelled to enter upon 
a course of reading, much of which is burdensome to the student, 
whose hours of study are limited by other duties. The same 
difficulty, in a greater measure, meets the study v)f other depart¬ 
ments of American history. 

The present work is an attempt to remove this difficulty in 
American histories. In its preparation, there has been a con¬ 
stant endeavor to jDresent a work embracing all the important 
phases in the general history of the countries of North and 
South America, and to compress the material into such a limit 
that even “he who runs may read ” its pages and profit there¬ 
from. 

CHARLES R. TUTTLE. 

Madison, Wis., Aprils 1876. 




ILLUSTRATIONS. 


CFor general contents see page 561.) 




^ 4 : 


5. 

6 . 

7. 

8 . 

ro. 

10. 

11 . 

'^ 2 . 

13. 


Vb 




14. 


15. 


ALraham Lincoln. 
Ulysses S. Grant. 
Gen. Braddock. 
Gen. Abercrombie. 
Gen. Wolfe. 

Gen. Montgomery. 
Gen. Warren. 

Gen. Marion. 

Gen. Wayne. 

Lord Baltimore. 
Gen. Greene. 
Pocahontas. 
Zachary Taylor. 
Gen. Scott. 

Gen. K. E. Lee. 


l*ortraits. 




■4 


lio 


3 M 


16 

17. 

^8. 

19. 

20 . 
■^21. 
, 22 

2;B, 

24 

25 
f^6 
;27 




28 


V29 


i -^-2 30 


Benjamin Franklin. 
Marquis de La Fayette. 
Columbus. 

Queen Anne. 

Geo. Washington. 

Gov. Winthrop. 

Gen. Gates. 

William Penn. 

James Oglethorpe. 
Henry Hudson. 

Roger Williams. 

, Patrick Henry. 

, Commodore Perry. 

, Commodore Decatur. 

. Jefferson Davis. 


Miscellaneotis. 


y 


31. 


' 32. 

K 33. 
. 34. 

35. 
^ 36. 


37. 

38. 

39. 

40. 

41. 

42. 


English Landing at New York, 
1664. _<i .4 

Surrendered Army at Yorktown.' 
Charging of Missionary Ridge. 
Capture of the Frolic, v ' 
Battle of Bunker Hill. ^ ■ 3 / 
Washington Crossing the Dela¬ 
ware. y 

The First Railroad Train. I L / 

A Fortified House. I ' 

The Charter Oak. I * ' 

Surrender of Lord Cornwallis. 
Battle of New Orleans. 
Sheridan’s arrival at Cedar Creek. 


43. 

44. 


Stonewall Jackson at Bull Run. v 
Indians welcoming the English¬ 
men. 1 ^ 

Exposition Building. ^ 


'A 


45. 

46. The Alarm at Fort Stanwix.) 

47. 

48. 

49. 


V /V 


50. 


51. 

52. 

53. 


Putnam Summoned to War.J 
Assassination of Lincoln, u ^ 
Crossing the Rapidan — Grant’s 
Telegram. 

Prayer before the Battle of Bunk¬ 
er Hill. ’ 

Memorial Hall. 

Agricultural Hall. 

Machinery Hall. 









THE 


COUNTKIES or HOETH AMERICA. 


NOETH AMEKICA. 

Extent. — The North American Continent, includ¬ 
ing Central America, lies between the sixth parallel 
of north latitude and the Arctic Ocean. It is bounded 
on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the 
Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Gulf of Mexico 
and South America, and the west by the Pacific Ocean. 
The length of the continent on the east side from Hud¬ 
son’s Straits to the Florida Channel following the in¬ 
dentations and windings of the coast is over 4,800 
miles, and from that point to Panama, about 4,500 
more, consequently the total length is 9,300 miles. 
On the Pacific side, the length following the California 
coast line, is over 10,500 miles, and the total coast line 
of the continent, including the north a-nd northeast 
shores, is estimated at about 22,800 miles. The total 
area of the continent is about 8,377,648 square miles. 

Political Divisions. — The great political di¬ 
visions of North America, are: British America, 
United States, Mexico, Alaska, Danish America (Green¬ 
land) and Central America. 

UNITED STATES. 

Extent. — The United States of America includes 
within well defined boundaries the best portion of 
the North American Continent, which for the major 




6 COUNTKIES OF NOKTH AMERICA. 

part was less than two centuries ago almost entirely a 
wilderness. It embraces an area extending from the 
British possessions on the north to the Gulf of Mex¬ 
ico, and the republic of that name on the south, and 
is situated between 25° T and 49° north latitude and 
between 66° 58y and 124° 43' longitude west of 
Greenwich. The maximum breadth of the continent 
within the boundaries of the United States lies be¬ 
tween the St. Croix Kiver, in Maine, to Cape Flattery, 
in Oregon, the distance between those points being 
2,744 miles. The maximum length is from the 49th 
parallel to the mouth of the Kio Grande, which is 
1,588. The total area, excluding Alaska Territory, a 
comparatively modern acquisition, is 3,026,494 square 
miles. There are only three nations on the globe 
which exceed this vast extent of area— the first be¬ 
ing the British Empire, including its East Indian pos¬ 
sessions, with all its colonies and dependencies, very | 
loosely held together; the Chinese Empire, the oldest ; 
nation existent; and the Kussian Empire, embracing a 
a wide extent of desert and uncultivable land. 

I. BOUNDARIES. ^ 

1. — The Northern Boundary commences at the 
mouth of the St. Croix River in Passamaquoddy Bay, 
follows that river through Grand Lake to its source arid 
thence proceeds due north until it strikes the St. John 
River. The line follows the St. John and St. Francis 
Rivers to the outlet of Lake Pohenagamock, whence 
it goes southwest to a point on the north branch of the 
St. John, ten miles from the main river. From the 
point last named, it stretches south 10° west, to the in¬ 
tersection of the southwest branch of the St. John 
River, and the parallel of 46° 25' north latitude, follows 
this river to its source, thence the ridge of the dividing 
land from whence the affluents flow on one side to the 
St. Lawrence River and on the other to the Atlantic 
Ocean, to the source of Hall’s stream, a tributary of the 
Connecticut, following this stream to the 45th parallel 




UNITED STATES. 


7 


which becomes the boundary until it strikes the St. 
Lawrence Eiver near the village of St. Eegis; thence it 
passes through the middle of the St. Lawrence, Lake 
Ontario, Niagara Eiver, Lake Erie, Detroit Eiver, St. 
Clair Lake and Eiver, Lake Huron and Lake Superior, 
to the mouth of Pigeon Eiver; thence it ascends 
Pigeon Eiver, crosses the Foul Lakes, and the Lake of 
the Woods to its northwestern extremity, in 49° 23' 
56" north latitude and 95° 14' 88" west longitude, where 
it turns due south to the 49th parallel, and follows this 
parallel to the canal De Hans, which separates Van¬ 
couver’s Island from the continent and the San Juan 
Islands. 

2 ,—The Southern Boundary follows the deepest 
channel of the Eio Grande due north to 82° north lati¬ 
tude, thence runs due west to 108° 30' west longitude, 
thence south to 81° 81' north latitude, thence again 
west to 111° west longitude, thence west northwest 
to the Colorado Eiver, below the mouth of the Gila 
Eiver. From this point the boundary line runs to 
the Pacific coast opposite the Carronadoo Island. 
The southern or Gulf Coast extends from Cape Sable 
the extremity of Florida, to the mouth of the Eio 
Grande and is very similar to the Atlantic coast, being 
low and level. The sea indents the coast with numer¬ 
ous bays and inlets, as the Laguna Madre, Corpus 
Christi, Matagorda, and Galveston Bays in Texas; 
Vermilion, Atchafalaya, Terrabonne, and Tirabalier 
Bays in Louisiana ; the Bay of Mobile in Alabama ; 
and Pensacola and Tampa Bays, besides smaller inlets 
in Florida. 


II. SURFACE. 

The Surface of the United States presents numerous 
marked characteristics, but in the general arrangement 
of its more striking features, it is quite simple. It is 
naturally divided into three very distinct areas, 
videlicet^ the Eastern, the Central, and the Western. 

1 . — The Eastern Area or belt consists of the-Ap- 





8 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


palacHan Mountain Eange, more familiarly known as 
the Alleghanies, which form part of the range, to¬ 
gether with the low plain which stretches along the 
sea coast and extends backwards until the base of the 
mountains is reached and gradually ascended. This 
plain is of various width at different points, as for in¬ 
stance, the average breadth in New England is nearly 
fifty miles, but in New York and New Jersey the area 
is much narrower, and farther south in North and 
South Carolina the marginal plain extends from the 
sea to a depth of more than two hundred miles. South 
of New Jersey and Pennsylvania, the plain may be di¬ 
vided into two sections, that to the east being low, level 
and sandy in the main, that to the west undulating, 
broken, and in some regions, diversified by chains of 
hills more or less considerable. The eastern portion is 
known as the Tide Water Section; the western is 
known as the Piedmont District, a name commonly 
used in Virginia. The Appalachian Mountains consti¬ 
tute a belt about one hundred miles wide and one 
thousand three hundred miles long, covering an area 
of very nearly 125,000 square miles, extending from 
the Canadian Province of New Brunswick to Northern 
Georgia and Alabama, where the last spur sinks down 
and is lost in the nearly horizontal expanse. The 
Mountains consist of many chains of hills almost; ; 
parallel and extending over vast distances nearly uni- 
form in elevation and bearing. Between these several 
heights there are numerous valleys and slopes ascend¬ 
ing the mountain sides to considerable altitudes which 
invite settlement and have already secured a large but 
scattered population, attracted by numerous advant¬ 
ages of soil, water and vegetation. Toward the west 
the base of the Appalachians is merged in a broad table 
land slightly elevated, and intersected by water courses 
which rise at many points among the mountains, and 
flow into the Mississippi. Western New York, Penn¬ 
sylvania, Western Virginia and the largest part of 
Ohio, are embraced in this vast plateau of table land, 





UNITED STATES. 


9 


as also are the southeastern counties of Indiana, nearly 
the whole of Kentucky and Tennessee, and a very con¬ 
siderable section of Alabama. 

2. — The Western Kegion consists of the larger part 
of the mountainous area and range of table lands 
known as the North American Cordilleras, which fol¬ 
low the Pacific coast of the continent, from the Isthmus 
of Panama, to the margin of the Arctic Ocean. Within 
the United States, the Cordilleras fill the area between 
the 105th meridian west of Greenwich and the western 
coast. The border toward' the east is formed by the 
Rocky Mountains and to the west the line is marked 
by the lofty chains of the Sierre Nevada and Cascade 
Mountains ; the spurs and projections of this vast sys¬ 
tem form the Coast Ranges of California, Oregon and 
Washington, abounding with bold promontories and 
ridges upon the Pacific Coast. Between the lofty 
chains of the border, there are numerous broken and 
detached ranges, which have received distinctive ap¬ 
pellations from explorers and settlers, but all mani¬ 
festly belonging to the same system. 

3. — Nearly all the maps of North America hitherto 
issued represent the Rocky Mountains as one range 
continuous throughout. The map makers have in that 
respect been betrayed into an error. There are twO' 
ranges, and even more, which include the highest por¬ 
tions of the continental plateau, connected by traverse- 
ridges at irregular distances. The ridges cut the 
plateau into a succession of smaller parks or plateaus,, 
which are shut in by gigantic elevations and have a. 
very picturesque appearance, in never ending variety. 
From the grand chains, there are secondary ranges 
which radiate and strike out into the plains, forming 
the base of the Rocky Mountains along their whole 
area. To the south the terminus of the mountain chains 
lies between the Rio Grande and the Pecos Rivers in 
western Texas, in about SO'" north latitude. Trending 
northwest from this point to 32° north latitude, they 
then change their general bearing to due north, trav- 



10 


CQUOTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


ersing ISTew Mexico, Colorado and Southern Wyom¬ 
ing until they sink down in that remarkable depres¬ 
sion through which the Sweet Water River and the 
North Platte flow from west to east, the western por¬ 
tion of which is known as the South Passs. North of 
the gap the Rocky Mountains rise again trending 
northwest through Wyoming, Idaho and Montana. 
The western chain forms the boundary between Idaho 
and Montana, and in that relation will be more par¬ 
ticularly dealt with. 

4. — The Rocky Mountains form the dividing range 
between the western tributaries of the Mississippi and 
the considerable streams that flow onward to the 
Pacific Ocean. Their mean elevation is ten thousand 
feet, hence, they form the highest point of the conti¬ 
nent, several of the peaks exceeding fourteen thous¬ 
and feet in height. The grandeur of this system 
of mountains may best be conveyed to the mind of 
the reader by a statement briefly rendered of a few of 
the principal elevations commencing with Fremont’s 
Peak in Wyoming, whose height is 13,570 feet; Long’s 
Peak in Colorado, 14,050 feet; Mount Audubon, near 
the peak last mentioned, but to the west, 13,456 feet; 
Perry’s Peak, about nine miles from the 40th parallel, 
13,133 feet; Mount Guyot, twenty-five miles north of 
the 39th parallel, 13,223 feet; Gray’s Peak, six miles 
west of the city of Denver, 14,145 feet; Mount Silver- 
heels, to the southwest of Mount Guyot, 13,650 feet; 
Mount Lincoln, northwest of Mount Silverheels and 
but a few miles distant, 14,123 feet; Horseshoe Mount, 
southeast of Mount Lincoln, about eight miles distant, 
13,806 feet; the world famous Pike’s Peak, 14,218; 
Mount Yale, about fourteen miles south of the 39tli 
parallel and west of the River Arkansas, 14,078 feet; 
and Mount Harvard, five miles northwest of Mount 
Yale, the greatest eminence, 14,270 feet. There are in¬ 
numerable peaks and mountain tops of lesser altitude, 
yet waiting to be named, and the entire chain is found 
to average ten thousand feet as already mentioned. 


UNITED STATES. 


11 


5. — The Yast Mountain Eange which constitutes 
the western edge of the Cordilleras is known in Cali¬ 
fornia as the Sierra Nevada or Snowy Eange and that 
name is rapidly being adopted everywhere to describe 
I this section of the greater chain. In Oregon and in 
Washington, the name changes to the Cascade Moun¬ 
tains, the range continuing the whole course and con¬ 
forming to the general direction of the coast, from 
wEich its distance, reckoning from mountain crest to 
I shore line, varies from one hundred and fifty to one 
hundred and seventy miles. The Sierra Nevada 
covers a distance of about 550 miles from Tejon Pass 
in the south, to Mount Shasta in the northwest; the 
eastern slope is abrupt and bold, and does not exceed 
ten miles in width, but the western slope, about sixty 
j miles broad, falls gently to the surface of the valley 
[ of the San Joaquin and Sacramento Eivers, until it 
is lost in the rolling plain. Toward the south there 
are three high crests, and between them are inclosed 
the two valleys of the two arms of Kern Eiver. From 
latitude 36° to Lassen’s Peak in 40° 30' the Sierra has 
but one crest, and from that point to Mount Shasta 
there is an elevated plateau clearly volcanic, which 
terniinates toward the east in Warner’s Eange. There 
is not so much uniformity in the Sierra Nevada range 
as in the Eocky Mountains, but the average of eleva¬ 
tion is about the same. The loftiest peaks are in the 
southern parts of the Sierras and from 36° 30' lati¬ 
tude going north the altitudes of the peaks and of the 
passes continually decrease; the peaks diminishing 
from 15,000 to 8,400 feet, and the passes decreasing 
from 12,000 to 5,400 feet. So far as explorations have 
yet determined. Mount Whitney near the head waters 
of Kern Eiver is the loftiest summit, having an alti¬ 
tude of 15,300 feet above the level of the sea, or 
about one thousand feet higher than Mount Harvard, 
the tallest peak in the Eocky Mountains. Mount 
Tyndall is 13,386 feet high, and Mount Brewer 13,886, 
Mount Lyell 13,217, Mount Dana 13,227 feet. Mount 



12 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


Hoffman 10,872, Silver Mountain 10,935 feet, Pyramid 
Peak 10,600, Mount Shasta 14,440, the Downieville 
Buttes 8,400 and Mount Onjumi 8,878 feet. From 
Mount Shasta the Cascade Mountains trend due north 
through Oregon and Washington, forming a prolong¬ 
ation of the Sierra Hevada, resembling the other part 
of the range in general characteristics, but at a greatly 
reduced elevation. The transverse valley of Colum¬ 
bia Kiver cuts through the Cascade Mountain Eange, 
and there are some few very high peaks and eleva¬ 
tions, as for instance Mount Beinier, 14,444 feet; 
Mount Baker, 10,719 feet; Diamond Peak, Mount 
Hood, 11,225 feet; and Mounts Adams and Saint 
Helen’s ranging near 9,500 feet high. 

6. — Between the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Moun¬ 
tain Range and the Rocky Mountains there is an ex¬ 
tensive region of table-land, broken by detached 
mountains, valleys and plains which communicate 
with each other through narrow defiles, winding 
around ridges and spurs innumerable, traversing nar¬ 
row and romantic valleys which occasionally open out 
into broad plains, which are among the least lovely 
features of this region. The narrow defiles are cus¬ 
tomarily green and beautiful, but, as the plain increases 
in breadth, the beauty of vegetation is lost. The 
mountains are always in sight, and the lowest level is 
at an altitude of 4,000 feet above the sea, from which 
the traveler may look upon craggy mountain tops 
bright and glistening with perpetual snow, which re¬ 
treats to the highest points as summer advances. The 
wood upon the ranges is but thin at the best, and, at 
limited heights, the vegetation becomes stunted, disap¬ 
pearing entirely before the region of perpetual snow is 
reached. Looked at from a distance, the mountains 
seem to be massive and solid as they loom up into the 
purple atmosphere, and the visitor sees no promise of 
the canons and valleys which intersect these ranges in 
every direction, deeply cut into the projecting stony 
ribs of the earth. Down the sides of these canons 


UNITED STATES. 


13 


trickle streams which gush from unfailing springs high 
up in the hills, where they are fed by the perpetual 
snows above. The massive rocks look like the but¬ 
tresses which might have been erected by the Titans 
when they began their warfare with the gods; and 
I they stand aloft in the pure, crisp air, contributing an 
unmatched scenic beauty, such as Bierstadt can only 
approach, but all to be eclipsed by the panoramic ef¬ 
fects which reward the sightseer as he scales the top¬ 
most heights, and looks abroad upon the earth spread 
out beneath his feet. The best characteristics of western 
mountain scenery are massed in the country which 
joins together the Bocky Mountains with the Sierra 
Nevada and the Cascade Mountains. 

7. — The Wahsatch Mountains, which pass through 
Central Utah from north to south, is one of the most 
important of these ranges, attaining almost the same 
elevat on as the Rocky Mountains, then passing as a 
i broad belt of [highlands which terminates near the 
banks of the Colorado River in the northwestern angle 
of Arizona. Towards the east, the Uintah Mountains 
branch off from the Wahsatch, and are only cut off 
from the spurs of the Rocky Mountains by the narrow 
defile of the Colorado River. The high basin of the 
Upper Colorado, which is traversed east and west by 
the Union Pacific Railroad, is to the north of the 
Uintah Mountains, bordered by the Rocky Mountains 
and the A¥ahsatch. The basin of the Middle Colorado 
occupies a lower terrace south of the Uintahs, extend¬ 
ing to the table land of the White Mesa, which stretch¬ 
es from the Rocky Mountains westward to the south¬ 
ern extremity of the Wahsatch. The world-famous 
canons owe their grandeur, which ranks them among 
the finest sights visible on the earth, to the power of 
the Colorado which cut through the table lands of the 
White Mesa. The Mogollon Mountains are still far¬ 
ther toward the south, and there are numerous other 
chains in Arizona which all trend southeast and north¬ 
west. 



14 


COUNTKIES OF KORTH AMERICA. 


8. — The region which is bordered on the east bj 
the Wahsatch Mountains and the northern parts of 
the Eocky Mountains, and on the west by the Sierra 
Nevada and the Cascade Mountains, is properly known 
as the Great Basin, its breadth varying from two hun¬ 
dred to four hundred and fifty miles. There are sev¬ 
eral isolated mountains within this area, seldom exceed¬ 
ing ten miles in width, with a trend north and south 
generally evident; of these, the most important are 
the Humboldt Mountains, about 75 miles from the 
Utah line; the West Humboldt Mountains, 100 miles 
east of California and flanking the Eeese Eiver Valley 
on the east, almost intermediate between the Hum¬ 
boldt and West Humboldt, the Toyabe Mountains. 
Several peaks of the East Humboldt and Toyabe 
ranges have an altitude of from 10,000 to 12,000 feet. 
The Humboldt Eiver intersects the central part of the 
Great Basin from east to west, and, north of that river, 
the mountains present a different character from those 
already named, as they are not arranged like the Eocky 
Mountains in parallel ridges, but seem to radiate from 
a central nucleus in almost every direction. There 
are several of these nuclei, and the character of the 
radiation is as nearly identical as seems to be possible 
in the arcana of nature where no two forms are ex¬ 
actly the same. The middle course of Snake Eiver 
divides two such ranges, known as the Salmon Eiver 
Mountains of Idaho, and the Blue Mountains in east¬ 
ern Oregon. Columbia Eiver plain, with an elevation 
hardly exceeding two thousand feet, constitutes east¬ 
ern Washington; there are three main depressions 
within this region, one at the foot of the Sierra, 8,850 
feet above the level of the sea, receives almost the 
whole drainage of northern Nevada and the eastern 
slope of the Sierra; the second, known as the Great 
Salt Lake Basin, about 4,250 feet above the sea level, 
near the western base of the Wahsatch ; and the third, 
known as the Dead Valley, in southeastern California 
is several hundred feet below the level of the sea. 


UNITED STATES. 


16 


9. — The Central Region is commonly known as 
the Mississippi Yalley, and it extends from the Appa¬ 
lachian Mountains in the east to the Rocky Mountains 
in the west. This immense plain comprises an area 
of 2,455,000 square miles, and it extends through 
thirty degrees of longitude and twenty-three degrees 
of latitude. The Height of Land, a vast plateau less 
than two thousand feet above the sea, bounds the val¬ 
ley on the north, separating it from the Red River 
Valley of the north. The Red River is one of the 
great feeders of Lake Winnepeg in British America. 
The alluvial bottom or flood ground of the Mississippi, 
which extends from the mouth of the Ohio River to 
the Gulf of Mexico, is the lowest part of the valley. 
This bottom is occasionally subject to inundation, aud¬ 
it varies in breadth from thirty miles to seventy, some 
parts being little other than swamp and impenetrable 
forests, in many parts covering a large part of the 
area. Bluffs on both sides of the bottom rise more 
or less precipitously to the prairies, sometimes at a 
level of from 150 to 200 feet above the level of the 
river. The bluffs approach very near to the river at 
some points, as at the Chalk Banks near Hickman, Ky.; 
j at the Iron Banks near Columbus; at Fulton, Ran- 
I dolph and Memphis, Tenn. ; at Vicksburg, Grand and 
I Petite Gulf, Natchez and Fort Adams, Miss.; and at 
* Francisville and Baton Rouge, La. From the some¬ 
times precipitous bluffs the country rises almost im¬ 
perceptibly toward the east and west, and is cut through 
at intervals by the rivers and streams which feed the 
Great Father of Waters, making transverse valleys of 
greater and less extent. The Ozark Mountains, about 
two thousand feet high, a belt of uplands and hills 
rather than mountainous elevations, rises from the 
western plain and occupies portions of the Indian Ter¬ 
ritory, Arkansas and Missouri. The higher parts of 
this area extend along the eastern base of the Rocky 
Mountains, and are known as the Great Plains. 




16 


COUNTEIES OF NOKTH AMERICA. 


III. RIVERS AND LAKES. 

The Rivers of the United States are divisible into 
three systems, which correspond to the divisions of the 
continent already described. In the first category we 
place the rivers which empty into the Atlantic; in the 
second, those which flow into the Pacific; and the 
third category embraces those which discharge their 
volume into the Gulf of Mexico. 

1. — The Largest Stream which enters the Atlantic 
is the St. Lawrence ; its course intersects the Dominion 
of Canada, but it also forms the boundary of the state 
of ISTew York, and drains the Great Lakes, receiving 
numerous affluents from the north central states, hence 
it is an integral part of the river system of the United 
States. Although not the longest river in the world, 
it is by far the greatest, surpassing every other in the 
volume of water which it contributes to the sea. The 
St. Louis River is the head stream which rises in the 
Height of Land, flows through northeastern Minnesota, 
emptying into Lake Superior at its western extremity. 
Lake Superior is an expansion of the St. Lawrence, 
and the Sainte Marie, St. Clair, Detroit and Niagara 
Rivers are only different portions of the same great 
stream. From the head waters of the St. Louis to the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence, the length of the stream is up¬ 
wards of two thousand miles, and the general direc¬ 
tion which it bears in its course to the head of Lake 
Erie is southeast, and from that point to the mouth of 
the river, northeast. The Fox River, rising in South¬ 
ern Wisconsin, and flowing northeast, is one of the 
principal tributaries. The Fox River empties into 
Green Bay. The other tributaries worthy of notation 
are the Oconto, Peshtigo and Menomonee, flowing into 
Green Bay; the Manistee, Notepseacon, Muskeagon, 
Grand, Kalamazoo, and St. Joseph Rivers, emptying 
into Lake Michigan ; the Au Sable and Saginaw, flow¬ 
ing into Lake Huron ; the Maumee, formed by the 
confluence of the St. Joseph and St. Mary, at Fort 


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UNITED STATES. 


17 


Wayne, emptying into Lake Erie; whicli Lake also 
receives the Sandusky, Lock, Cuyahoga, and Grand 
Rivers, which traverse and largely drain Northern 
! Ohio. Through Lake Ontario the Genesee and the 
Oswego lind their way to the ocean, the last named 
; river being the outlet of the lakes in Central New 
York; the Crooked, Seneca, Cayuga, Owasco, Skene- 
ateles, and Oneida. The Black River rises in the Ad- 
i irondack Mountains, emptying into the eastern extreni- 
i ity of Lake Ontario. The St. Lawrence proper receives 
; the Oswegatchie, Racket, and Richelieu Rivers. The 
Richelieu is the outlet of Lake Champlain and Lake 
George. 

2. — The Principal Rivers of New England include 
: the St. Croix, which rises in Grand Lake, 882^ feet 

above the sea level, and empties into Passamaquoddy 
Bay, forming the eastern boundary of Maine; the Pen¬ 
obscot, which draws its main supplies from Pamadum- 
I cook and Chesuncook Lakes, and has for its principal 
tributaries on its course the Seboois and the Matta- 
wamkeag before its discharge into Penobscot Bay ; the 
Kennebec which starts from Moosehead Lake, and has 
for its main tributary the Androscoggin ; the Merri- 
mac, which owes its volume to the junction of the 
Pemigerdasset and the Winnipiseogee ; the lake Win- 
nipiseogee drains through the river last named; and 
the Connecticut, which takes its rise in the Height of 
Land, very near the boundary of Vermont. There are 
two branches of the Connecticut, and the western arm 
is commonly known as Hall’s Stream. The river flows 
almost due south until it reaches Middletown, Conn., 

I and at that point changes to southeast, emptying at 
last into Long Island Sound. New England has but 
few rivers that are navigable far inland, but that fact 
is due to the configuration of the country, not to any 
lack of volume in its streams. 

3. — New York owes its largest river to the Adiron- 
dacks, where the Hudson takes its rise, receiving, 
among many minor tributaries, the Sacondago and the 

2 



18 COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

Mohawk before the major stream flows into ISTew York 
Bay. The Hudson is a majestic river, and the scenery 
upon its banks is by many travelers held to surpass 
even the world famous Ehine, of which tourists have 
sung in every language known on this footstool. The 
river Delaware takes its rise in two branches within 
the state, and its southern course forms the boundary 
line between Hew Jersey and Pennsylvania. The Le¬ 
high and the Schuylkill Kivers are the main tributa¬ 
ries of the Delaware. The Susquehanna has also two 
branches east and west, and the conjoined scream flows 
through Pennsylvania to the head of Chesapeake Bay, 
receiving the Janiata in its course. The James River, 
the largest in Virginia, the Rappahannock and the Po¬ 
tomac, also discharge into Chesapeake Bay. The 
Roanoke River is the result of a junction between the 
Staunton and the Dan, and the union is effected very 
near to the southern boundary line of Virginia. The 
Roanoke discharges its volume into Albemarle Sound. 
The Heuse River has no tributaries worthy of note, 
and the stream falls into Pamlico Sound. The Deep 
and the Haw Rivers combine to form Cape Fear River, 
which flows through southern North Carolina to very 
near Cape Fear. The Wateree and the Congreve Riv¬ 
ers, which form the Yadkin and the Santee River, are 
the principal streams in South Carolina. The bound¬ 
ary between Sooth Carolina and Gfeorgia is marked by 
the Savannah River, which results from the junction 
of the Tugaloo and Kiawa, and the stream finds its 
outlet below the city of Savannah. Steamboats ascend 
on this river as far as Augusta, Ga. The River Al- 
tamaha is formed by the combination of the Oconee 
and the Ocmulgee Rivers. The River St. John’s of 
Florida, takes its rise in a great swamp in that region 
and, flowing north from that point, speedily makes a 
bend to the east and empties into the ocean. Most of 
the rivers mentioned can be navigated as far as tide 
water ascends. 

4. — The largest river emptying into the Pacific is 





UNITED STATES. 


19 


tlie Columbia, which takes its origin in a small lake at 
the western base of the Kocky Mountains, and from 
that region flows north north west along the the range 
to the base of Mount Hooker, whence it turns west for 
I a brief space, and eventually flows south, forming in 
: this portion of its course the Arrow Lakes, Upper, Mid- 
I die and Lower. The Columbia is joined by the Clark 
Fork shortly after it crosses the southern boundary of 
, British Columbia and enters Washington Territory, 
and continuing its southerly direction to about 48° 
north latitude, makes a bend to the west, and with a 
bold but somewhat tortuous curve sweeps around the 
I Great Columbia Plain. The largest tributary of the 
! Columbia is the Snake Kiver, which is received at the 
I point 46° north latitude, and 117° longitude west of 
Greenwich. After being thus increased, the river flows 
wmst to the Pacific Ocean, constituting the boundary 
between Oregon and Washington Territory. The Co¬ 
lumbia forms a series of rapids or cascades as it passes 
through a gap in the mountain chain, to which it gives 
the name of Cascade Mountains. The waterfalls are 
separated from each other by long intervals of from, 
twenty-five to thirty miles, in which the stream flows 
placidly along. At the mouth of this river there is an 
estuary about six miles wide and fully thirty miles iru 
length, which opens into the ocean almost midway be¬ 
tween Cape Disappointment and Point Adams. The- 
navigation on the river is good as far as the lowest cas¬ 
cade, which is about one hundred and forty miles from 
I the mouth of the river, and steamers are engaged in 
I traffic there. Above the highest cascade, there is also 
I a o'ood navigable stream as far as Old Fort Walla 
Walla. The two navigations have been joined by 
means of railroad communication, which runs around 
the cascades. The distance overland from the source 
of the river to its mouth is very nearly 670 miles; 
but the river’s length is 1,150 miles, and the area of 
country drained in its convolutions and by its tributa¬ 
ries is 638,880 square miles. The tributaries of the 




20 COT^NTEIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

river are nameroas and extensive. The Flat Bow 
Fork takes its rise in the Rocky Mountains of British 
Columbia, and thence flows south into Montana, re¬ 
turning by a west northwest course into Columbia, 
where it joins the great stream near to the southern ex¬ 
tremity of the Lower Arrow Lake. Flat Head River 
and Bitter Root River unite to form Clark’s Fork. 
Flat Head River rises south of Kootanie Pass, in the 
Rocky Mountains, and from that point runs south 
through Flat Head Lake, turning west on leaving the 
lake. Bitter Root River has its origin in the Big Hole 
Mountains, and its course is northerly between Bitter 
Root and Rocky Mountains, where it traverses a very 
magnificent valley, receiving Blackfoot River and 
Big Hole River from the east. After the Flat Head 
and Bitter Root Rivers join, Clark’s Fork has a north¬ 
west course along the base of the Coeur d’Allene 
Mountains, and passing through Lake Pend d’Oreille, 
it flows into the Columbia River near the 49th parallel 
of latitude. Another river, the Spokane, has its rise 
in the Bitter Root Mountains, whence its course lies, 
west through Coeur d’Allene Lake, to join the Colum¬ 
bia in 47° 46' north latitude. 

5. —Snake River, sometimes known as Lewis’ Fork, 
has its origin in the Wind River Mountains, and its 
course is south along the eastern foot of the Titan 
Range, from whence it passes through a gap between 
the Wind River and Bear River Mountains. The 
course changes to southwest after a junction with Hen¬ 
ry’s Fork, through Camas Prairie, a very extensive 
tract; but the rocky plateau in southern Idaho deflects 
the stream to the west, while separating it from the 
Humboldt River. The stream bends to the north in 
116° 45' west longitude, and constitutes the boundary 
between Idaho and Oregon; thence passing through 
.southeastern Washington, Snake River discharges in°o 
.the Columbia nearly ten miles north of the OTd Fort 
Walla Walla. In many parts of its course the river 
Las quite a fine appearance, and the scenery is very 


UNITi:!) STATES. 


21 


impressive, especially in the more mountainous parts 
of its course. Snake River has many falls of large di¬ 
mensions. Some enthusiasts contend that it has some 
cataracts which will compare favorably even with Niag¬ 
ara. The largest tributaries are Godin’s River, McAr¬ 
thur River, Salmon River, and Clear Water River in Ida¬ 
ho; Paloon River, in Southeastern Washington ; and in 
Oregon, Owyhee, Malheur, and Grande Rounde Rivers. 
The Columbia receives the John Day’s River just be¬ 
low the point of junction with Snake River. The 
John Day’s River has its rise in the Blue Mountains. 
Other affluents fall in in rapid succession, including 
! the Des Chutes^ or the The Falls, which have their 
j course along the eastern base of the Cascade Moun- 
^ tains, and the Willamette River, which traverses a rich 
1 . and fertile valley in Western Oregon, with the Cascade 
I Mountains on one side and the Coast Ranges on the 
other. The Sacramento and the San Joaquin are the 
two largest in the state of California, both discharging 
into the Bay of San Francisco. 

I 6. — The Colorado River of the West is the result 
of the confluence of the Greene and Grand Rivers. 
The stream falls into the Gulf of California. Greene 
River rises in the Wind River Mountains, which are 
the loftiest of the Rocky Mountain Ranges in the Ter¬ 
ritory of Wyoming, and the stream flows south across 
the high land which is traversed by the Union Pacific 
Railroad. The rise of the Uintah Mountains deflects 
the stream to the east; but after their base is passed, 
the stream goes south once more, through the very 
beautiful basin formed by the Wahsatch and the 
Rocky Mountains. Greene River joins Grand River 
near the 38th parallel. Grand River rises in the Mid¬ 
dle Park of Colorado, and breaks a way through the 
western chain of the Rocky Mountains, flowing south¬ 
west between the Elk Mountain and Book Mountain. 
After the Greene and Grand Rivers join, the Colorado 
flows southwest until it enters the great chasms known 
as the Great Canon in the White Mesa. The Colorado 





22 


COUNTKTES OF NOBln AMERICA. 


emerges from the Great Canon at Collville, in south¬ 
western Nevada, flowing due south from that point 
through valleys and canons until it reaches across the 
low Colorado Desert to plunge into the Gulf of Cali¬ 
fornia. Reckoning the length of the Colorado from 
the source of Greene River until it falls into the gulf, 
the river exceeds one thousand miles, and, with its 
numerous affluents, its drainage area is 227,000 square 
miles. Rrom the west the tributaries are small, but 
the eastern tributaries are larger and more numerous. 
The Rio Blanco or San Juan has its rise in the Sierra 
Mimbres, and pursues a westerly course. The Zuri 
Mountains give birth to the Flax River or Little Col¬ 
orado, which flows by the southern margin of the 
White Mesa, having its course through the deep can¬ 
ons which abound in that region. Gila River comes 
with a tortuous westerly course from the mountains of 
southwestern New Mexico through numerous moun¬ 
tain chains to join the Colorado River near the south¬ 
western angle of Arizona. 

7. — The great central plain of the United States is 
drained by the rivers which discharge their contents 
into the Gulf of Mexico, and the watershed which di¬ 
vides this system of rivers from the others which drain 
into the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans must be brief¬ 
ly described. The Watershed commences in south¬ 
ern Mexico, and trends north along the ranges which 
border the valley through which the Rio Grande flows, 
and on the west reaches the South Park. Crossing 
then to the east, curving around Middle Park, the 
western chain of the Rocky Mountains is followed to 
the 45th parallel, where it bends east, inclosing almost 
the head waters of the Missouri River. After reaching 
the 46th parallel, the ridge trends northwest along the 
eastern chain of the Rocky Mountains. The Water¬ 
shed of the North which separates the tributaries of 
the Mississippi from the sources of supply for Lake 
Winnipeg and the Great Lakes, passes through Dakota 
between Lake Traverse and Big Stone Lake, following 


UNITED STATES. 


23 


the Height of Land in northern Minnesota, passing 
through Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio and Penn¬ 
sylvania, but little distant from the southern shores of 
Lake Michigan and Lake Erie. The eastern drainage 
area passes through the beautiful plateau of western 
Pennsylvania, and then following the Alleghany Moun- 

i tains until it reaches the Great Kanawha River, where 
: it crosses to the Blue Ridge, and follows that range 
! right through Virginia and North Carolina until, near 

the head waters of the Savannah River, the trend pro¬ 
ceeds south through Georgia and Florida. The territory 
hastily sketched in the lines thus described is larger 
than the whole area of western Europe, and its fertility 
cannot be surpassed in the world, assuming always the 
same skill in husbandry to be applied to the soil. 
The United States have herein a wonderfully produc¬ 
tive region', whose boundless wealth is only beginning 
to be appreciated. Many of the streams traversing this 
j area are navigable for an immense proportion of their 

ii length; and but for the unexampled rapidity with 
j which railroads have been extended, this network of 
I rivers would be still more largely used as a means of 
j communication between distant and populous cities, 

as they constitute the finest network of riparian facility 
that can be found in the world. 

8.—The Mississippi is the largest of these rivers, 
and is appropriately distinguished as the Father of 
Waters. The river rises near the northern boundary 
of the United States, and may be said to bisect the 
area from north to south, so that one-third of the coun¬ 
try lies east of the river bed, and the remainder to the 
west. On the Height of Land in northern Minnesota 
we find the source at an elevation of 1,680 feet above 
the level of the sea, and by the river 2,616 miles from 
its mouth, the distance overland being 1,295 miles. 
The area drained by this gigantic stream is no less 
than 1,244,000 square miles. Many of the tributaries 
of the Mississippi are rivers of great magnitude, bring¬ 
ing from the west the drainage of the Rocky Mouu- 




24 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

tains, and from the east the tribute of the Appalachian 
chain, to the grand stream which floats the commerce 
of a nation. The great tributaries from the east to the 
Mississippi are the Wisconsin, the Illinois, the Ohio, 
the Yazoo and the Big Black Kivers. The Ohio Kiver 
is constituted by the junction of the Monongahela and 
Alleghany Rivers at Pittsburg, which are joined by nu¬ 
merous affluents, including among many smaller streams 
the Muskingum, Scioto, Miami, Wabash, the Great 
Kanawha, Kentucky, Cumberland and Tennessee Riv¬ 
ers. From the west the principal tributaries are the 
Minnesota River, the Des Moines, the Missouri, the 
Arkansas, and the Red River. The Des Moines inter¬ 
sects the state of Iowa; the Missouri rises in the Rocky 
Mountains of Montana, and in its length this tributary 
exceeds the Mississippi by nearly three hundred miles, 
being 2,908 miles from its source to the ocean, and in 
its course it receives the Yellow Stone, the Platte, the 
Kansas and the Osage Rivers. The Arkansas River 
has its source in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, 
and the Red River rises on the Llano Estacado. 

9. — The streams which discharge into the Gulf 
west of the Mississippi are those which are found in¬ 
tersecting Texas, including the Sabine, Trinity, Brazos, 
Colorado, Keuces and Rio Grande, the last named be¬ 
ing the boundary line separating Texas from Mexico. 
This river rises in the San Juan Mountains and takes 
its course through the San Luis Park, pursuing a course 
almost due south to the 83d parallel, turning thence 
southeast to empty itself into the Gulf to the south of 
the Laguna Madre, not far from the petty village of 
Bagdad. The largest tributary of the Rio Grande is 
the Pecos River. East of the Mississippi the rivers 
wdiich are discharged into the Gulf are not so numer¬ 
ous ; they include the Mobile River which results from 
the junction of the Tombigbee and the Alabama Rivers; 
the last named being a combination of the Cahawba 
and Coosa Rivers at a point above Montgomery ; the 
Appalachicola River which is formed by the union of 


UNITED STATES. 


25 


the Chattahoochee and the Flint, and the Suwanee 
Kiver which rises in southern Georgia and intersects 
northern Florida. 

IV. CLIMATE AND VEGETATION. 

The area of the United States is within the warm 
belt of the temperate zone. To the north its boundary 
is 17^° of latitude from the southernmost limit of the 
frigid zone, and to the south it escapes the tropic of 
' Cancer by nearly l|-°, and thus both extremes are 
avoided, except in the territory of Alaska and in the 
highest of the Cordilleras where severe cold is experi¬ 
enced. Generally the temperature favors the devel- 
i opment of civilized communities, and sufficient mois- 
: ture falls, as a rule, to allow of agricultural pursuits 
being prosecuted with advantage. The mean annual 
; temperature of a country may seem favorable to hu- 
I man life and to progress, yet the distribution of heat 
j and cold be such as to minimise the possibilities and 
results of industry; but no such results have to be 
complained of as oppressing humanity in this region. 
Climatology has of late years become almost a science 
in itself, and the large series of meteorological obser- 
i vations made within the last two decades give a superb 
I foundation, and may soon carry that branch of study 
I to its topmost limit; but a detailed discussion of its 
modes would be foreign to our purpose here. The 
United States may be conveniently divided into two 
sections in describing its climate and vegetation. 
Nearly two-thirds of the area may be included in the 
eastern portion extending from the coast abutting on 
the Atlantic to the Great Plains, and the western in- 
' eludes the Great Plains and the Cordilleras, extending 
thence to the Pacific coast. 

1 . — Eastern Section. Comparative uniformity 
is the main feature in the distribution of temperature, 
as the isothermal lines which indicate comparative 
warmth cross the country almost always from east to 
west in every latitude. Northern Minnesota and 





26 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

northern Maine are the coldest portions, and in these 
the mean temperature for the year is 86° in the first, 
and 40° in the last. The highest limit is in southern 
Tlorida at the mouth of the Bio Grande, where it 
reaches 75°. 

2. — The country east of the Appalachian Moun¬ 
tains differs from the Mississippi Valley in the distri¬ 
bution of temperature, the greater extremes being in 
the Valley. The mean temperature of Cambridge, 
Massachusetts, and Dubuque, Iowa, is very nearly the 
same, but the coldest month in Dubuque has an aver¬ 
age of 17-|-°, and that of the coldest month in Cam¬ 
bridge shows 2o^°. The hottest months show respect¬ 
ively in Cambridge 69f°, and in Dubuque 75°, conse¬ 
quently the variation is nearly 14° greater in Dubuque, 
Iowa, than in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The facts 
speak for themselves. 

3. — The influence of Oceanic currents and the 
winds prevailing at certain seasons, regulate tempera¬ 
ture very largely. The summers are as warm in the 
eastern section of the United States as in correspond¬ 
ing latitudes in Europe, but the winters are colder. 
New York, in 41° north latitude, has nearly the same 
mean temperature for the year as Brussels, which is 
10° further south, but the difference is mainly notice¬ 
able in the winter seasons. In the summer the north¬ 
ern parts of the United States realize almost the 
warmth of Italy, but the winters remind one of 
Sweden. This series of facts allows the cultivation 
of cereals in high latitudes that would be fatal to their 
production in Europe. 

4. — Almost the whole area of the Union lies with¬ 
in the zone of variable winds, in which the whole of 
the points of the compass seem to be taxed to fill the 
law of change which has been demonstrated by Dove. 
There are two primary currents, one from the north, 
toward the equator, and the other in the precisely op¬ 
posite direction, which temporarily displace each other, 
giving rise to all the changes that have been noticed, 




UNITED STATES. 


27 


but in the main westerly winds predominate, almost 
equalling all the other directions noted as prevailing 
in nearly eleven hundred observations at Portland, 

• Me., Atlanta, Ga., and at Dubuque, Iowa. 

5. — The zone of the trade winds extends to the 
^ 39th parallel during the summer, and the southern 

portion of the United States should experience pre- 
, vailing winds from the northeast but the Gulf of 
r' Mexico exerts a local inlluence which changes the cur- 
; rent to south and southwest, and the winds thus indi¬ 
cated are experienced as far inland as Cincinnati and 
St. Louis. The greater heat of the land and conse¬ 
quent rarefaction causes the prevalence referred to on 
principles which have been made clear by Maury and 
other writers. At St. Louis the prevailing winds from 
April to October are south and southeast, and from 
October to April, west and northwest winds are the 
rule. Near the mouth of the Mississippi southerly 
f winds, varied by breezes from the east, prevail during 
summer and early part of autumn. 

6 . — The Mississippi Valley owes much of its fer¬ 
tility to the moist climate and genial warmth due to 

i the deflected trade winds just mentioned. North of 
Mobile and Mississippi sound the annual rainfall is 63 
inches, while Louisiana and Mississippi, near the great 
stream has not so much rain by three inches, and 
northeast and west from the points named the decrease 
goes on steadily, until in Minnesota, Wisconsin and 
Michigan, we find it reduced to thirty inches, or less 
than one-half. Near the western ranges of the Appa¬ 
lachians in Kentucky, Tennessee and eastern Ohio, the 
rainfall is about 86 inches. The deflected trades cor¬ 
responded with this area of decreasing rain as may be 
seen in the eastern limits of the arid plains which 
stretch for several hundred miles in breadth along the 
eastern base of the Kocky Mountains. 

I 7. — The seaboard is favored with a more copious 
rainfall, which reaches to 63 inches in southern Flori¬ 
da, 50 inches in Georgia, 48 inches in the Carolinas, 




28 COUNTRIES OF NORTS AMERICA. ' 

I 

45 inches in Yirginia, and from 40 to 42 inches in ^ 
Pennsylvania, New York and New England. 

8. — In the east, indigenous vegetation appears as ; 
forest and prairie, the first extending from the Atlantic i 
coast to a line which would be described from southern 
Michigan to the mouth of the Sabine Kiver, embracing ’ 
the southern section of the Mississippi Yalley. West 
of that line, including the northern section of the val¬ 
ley just named, the prevalent characteristic is the fer¬ 
tile prairie which at length terminates in arid plains. 

9. — The forests in the north consist of evergreens, 
pine, spruce, and hemlock predominating. As the 
traveler proceeds south, deciduous trees, oak, elm, ash, 
maple and others of the like class gradually replace 
the evergreen. Pennsylvania and Indiana produce 
several species of oak, chestnut, hickory, black wal¬ 
nut, beech, sassafras and the tulip tree. Below Ten¬ 
nessee and North Carolina, the Southern States are 
rich in evergreens of another type, such as the live 
oak, the gordonia, the magnolia, of which extensive 
groves are found on the Grulf coast, and the palmetto 
which flourishes on the sea coast, from South Carolina • 
to Florida. The peculiar growth known as Spanish 
Moss, with its long gray festoons, covers vast tracts of 
southern forests giving a peculiarly mournful aspect 
to the country where it predominates. The mangrove 
seems to have a peculiar love for the Florida coast, 
and many other varieties claim attention, but space 
forbids. 

10. — The prairies form a peculiar feature in the 
scenery of the United States as they stretch back from 
the forest belt presenting the appearance of a sargasso 
sea solidified and covered with herbs and grasses. 
Fires occurring almost every season during many cen¬ 
turies have restricted the growth of trees with the , 
prairie section to bottom lands and other spots peculi- . 
arly protected, but the urgency of nature is not ex- “ 
hausted as wherever of late years protection has been 
extended over the grassy region, clumps and groves of \ 


I 


i 


UNITED STATES. 29 

trees spring into being. The water courses of the vast 
rivers cutting deep into the soil and softer rocks have 
in most districts })reserved enough timber for the use 
of settlers, and with the advancement of habitation there 
springs up a much larger natural growth in addition 
to the plantations incidental to occupation. The ab¬ 
sence of trees has of course exercised an influence in- 
reducing the average of rain, and it is noticed that 
where plantations have increased, rains and running 
springs have materially progressed. 

11 . -— The Westekn Section is only about one- 
balf as large as the Eastern. Its elevation above trie lev¬ 
el of the sea is much greater than that of the remaining 
two-thirds, and many lofty mountain chains exercise a 
great power in refrigerating the air at some seasons. 
In Wyoming, at the South Pass, the mean tempera¬ 
ture of the year only reaches to 40°, while many local¬ 
ities in similar latitudes in the east have a mean of 50°. 
The isothermal line in the Pocky Mountains coincides 
with the 85th parallel, which in Arkansas and North 
Carolina shows a mean of 60°, or rather more. The 
daily variations in this region are astounding to visitors, 
as it is by no means rare to find the thermometer rang¬ 
ing from 24° at sunrise to 80° at noon or shortlv after. 

12. — The elevated plateaus of the Cordilleras and 
the Great Plains possess a drier atmosphere than other 
parts of the United States. The westerly winds de¬ 
posit their moisture on the western slopes of the Sierra 
Nevadk so that when they travel over the high lands 
just mentioned, they are, for all practical purposes, as 
dry as though they had never drank up the vapors of 
the Pacific Ocean. The Great Basin is largely cooled 
by vaporless winds, but the high crests of the Pocky 
Mountains procure a thin coating of snow from the 
little moisture which yet remains. Easterly and north¬ 
erly winds are found to be the great rain carriers for 
the plains, so far as they are favored with fluvial visi¬ 
tations. The vegetation is scanty in this arid country, 
trees being limited to portions of the more elevated 




80 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

mountains. Wild sage covers much of the land, and 
there is an efflorescence of alkali which is at first an 
obstacle to cultivation, but after being well broken, 
the mineral composition of the soil is not found objec¬ 
tionable. Previous to cultivation the aspect of the 
country is very unattractive, and travelers find the air 
unwholesome as well as unpleasant; but after settle¬ 
ment these characteristics disappear in a very great 
degree. Upon the Great Plains there are found during 
summer varieties of grass known under the generic 
name of buffalo grass, which are cured on the ground 
so that they do not lose their nutritious qualities in 
drying. Other grasses are-now displacing the native 
grasses with great advantage, and more profitable stock 
is gradually displacing the herds of bison, deer and 
antelope, which once roamed at large over those vast 
plains. 

13. — The section extending from the 40th to the 
60th parallel, which comprises Idaho, Montana and 
Washington, is timbered to some extent with firs and 
pines in considerable variety. Lofty mountain ranges 
of from 6,000 to 8,000 feet in height are wooded 
almost to the top with black pines of great height. 
On the eastern base of the Bitter Eoot range which is 
elsewhere known as the Coeur d’Allene Mountains, 
west of the Bitter Boot Piver, the characteristics 
change; the country is clothed with almost impene¬ 
trable forests, and the streams are confined to nar¬ 
rower beds in the defiles of the mountains. Further 
to the west, beyond the densely wooded country, the 
great plain of the Columbia Piver extends treeless, or 
almost treeless, and the land presenting the aspects of 
a troubled sea. Beyond this plain, the Cascade Moun¬ 
tains rise, and almost at their summits forests again 
appear, whieh extend to the verge of the Pacific Ocean. 
Gigantic pines and firs ascend to a height of from 
200 to 250 feet in many cases. The best spar and 
ship timber attainable in the United States can be 
found in Washington Territory. 



UNITED STATES. 


81 


14. — W est of the summit line of the Sierra Nevada 
and the Cascade Mountains is a comparatively narrow 
belt of country, which extends from the Columbia 
Kiver to the southern extremity of California, which 
differs in important particulars from the arid regions 
of the Cordilleras. Italy, and the countries bordering 
on the Mediterranean, afford the nearest parallel to the 
climate of this favored region, which conduces to a 
vegetation entirely peculiar. The summer is compar¬ 
atively rainless, and the winters are mild and brief, 
rather distinguished as rainy seasons than what is 
known elsewhere as winter. Near the sea the temper¬ 
ature, naturally affected by the body of water, is more 
uniform than further inland, as the cold current washes 
the coast from north to south. 

15. — Northwesterly winds prevail almost uninter¬ 
ruptedly from November to April, and the overheated 
valleys give off, rather than absorb, moisture. South¬ 
erly and southeasterly winds prevail during the rainy 
term, and the moisture is taken from them as they 
pass over the land which, during that season, is colder 
than the current of moist air. In California and Ore¬ 
gon the coast ranges and low plains are destitute of 
forests. Near the ocean, pines and oaks are found 
wherever circumstances favor the retention of mois¬ 
ture; but heavy forests only occur in the higher parts 
of the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Mountains, 
which shut off the winds from the inland region until 
they have given off their fertilizing burden. The 
forests are pines in the lower ranges, but beyond an 
altitude of 2,800 feet, green oaks are found which mix 
with the pines until an altitude of 4,700 feet above the 
sea is attained; beyond that point coniferous trees 
prevail, the gigantic pines, the redwood, and other 
varieties, whose dimensions astound the beholder. 

V. POPULATION. 

1 . —The Population of the United States, accord¬ 
ing to the ninth census, taken in 1870, excluding the 



82 


COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


Indian tribes, was 38,555,988, and including the red¬ 
skins, 88,853,217. The number since that enumera¬ 
tion has increased immensely. There are four empires 
which possess a larger number of inhabitants : The 
Chinese or Celestial Empire has 477,500,000; the 
British Empire has 174,200,000; the Russian Empire 
has 76,500,000, and the German Empire, 40,200,000 
inhabitants. The United States, according to the 
enumeration of 1870, comes next to the German Em¬ 
pire, but it requires no prophet to foresee that, within the 
current decade, relative positions will be considerably 
changed. Austria and France have each about 86,000,- 
000, but in France the increase during sixty years from 
the commencement of this century only amounted to 87 
per cent., while the increase of the population of the 
United States during the same term amounted to 598 
per cent. There is no other civilized nation that can 
compare with France in the paucity of increase, nor with 
this in the wonderful increase which has been exhibit¬ 
ed during the term indicated. The wealth and re¬ 
sources of this country, the boundless regions over 
which population may extend, not merely for decades, 
but for centuries, cannot fail to continue the march of 
progression until this community will exceed the Ce¬ 
lestial empire in numbers as much as pt now excels 
that nation in almost every other particular. In the 
year 1790, our population was 3,929,214, and, from 
that date to the present, the successive decades have 
shown increases to 5,308,483: 7,288,881; 9,638,822; 
12,866,020; 17,069,453; 23,191,876; 31,443,321; to 
the latest rendering in 1870, 38,555,983. 

2 . —There are three efficient causes of progress in 
population — one by annexation, such as was secured 
l3y Germany in the cession of Alsace, by immigration 
such as that which brings hundreds of thousands 
every year across the Atlantic to our shores, and natu¬ 
ral increase, such as will require no illustration. We 
have gained but little by annexation, although Louis¬ 
iana, when purchased from France, had 77,000 inhabi- 






j-"' 









.-'.x 




HaETEY HlTDSOlf* 


rOOAHONTAB* 


4AMES \OGLETUOBPKr 






































































UNITED STATES. 


83 


tants; Florida, 10,000; New Mexico and California, 
nearly 60,000. Texas and Oregon also brought addi¬ 
tions, but mainly consisting of citizens who had gone 
thither anticipating such action. Immigration, the 
second factor, has been our main stay, and, as a rule, 
it brings to us a desirable class of people; more es- 
. pecially has this been noticeable of late years. AVhile 
the civil war was progressing, the increase from immi¬ 
gration sensibly fell off, but, since that strife came to 
an end, normal conditions of growth have come once 
more into operation, and will soon exceed all earlier 
records, as the intelligent and moneyed classes become 
more conversant with the opportunities and resources 
offered by this country. At one time, the underpaid 
. laborer and tradesman, or the evicted cottier from Ire¬ 
land and Scotland formed the type of the men and 
women that crossed the Atlantic, but that time passed 
soon after ocean steamers became established as means 
of communication, and although the working commu¬ 
nity is still increased by continuous additions from 
every European country, commercial and other enter- 
, prises, involving the outlay of very considerable capi¬ 
tal, bring large numbers in addition, as it were, to offi- 
j cer the army of industry, attracted by the possibility 
i of results hardly to be found in any other country. 

I 3. — When the last census was compiled, there were 
I nearly 10,000,000 foreigners, or immediate descend- 
I ants of foreigners, in our population, and the extent 
' to which we have been indebted to that factor of de- 
i velopment may be gathered from the estimate of natu- 
I ral increase which, in the year 1850, would have given 
I to the Union a population of 22,000,000 souls, sup- 
I posing that all immigration had ceased at the time of 
the momentous declaration. When the war of Inde¬ 
pendence commenced, there were less than three million 
persons in the combined colonies, and, from that time 
until 1819, the arrivals from over sea had not exceeded 
250.000; but the Passenger act which then came into 
force, as well as steadily improving facilities for inter- 


3 




84 COUNTEIES OF NOKTH AMERICA. 

course, have resulted in a much greater stream since 
that date; indeed, the numbers arriving between the 
dates of October 1, 1819, and December 31, 1870, 
amounted to 7,553,865. 

4 . —An influx of skilled and unskilled labor so 
great has, of course, assisted very materially to devel¬ 
op the resources of the country, as every person capa¬ 
ble of maintaining himself by honest labor increases 
the material wealth of the community to which he 
joins himself, and the condition of our charitable in¬ 
stitutions is conclusive evidence that most of those 
who come are self supporting, at the very lowest esti¬ 
mate. A celebrated G-errnan statist has tried to reduce 
the value of every immigrant to an account in dollars 
and cents, and between that gentleman and other able 
authorities, the money value of every fresh arrival is 
variously stated at from $1,125 to rather less than 
$1,000. In addition to that estimate, it will be borne 
in mind that most of the men that come bring with 
them some small contribution of their own earnings 
toward the wages fund of the community. Massing 
all these accretions, and assuming $800 as the money 
worth of each immigration, the total addition to our 
wealth from that source comes near to $6,245,000,000, 
an amount of money positively astounding. 

5 . — It cannot fail to be interesting to observe in 
what proportion the several countries of the old world 
have contributed to swell our numbers up to the end 
of December, 1870. England had sent us 515 192 * 
Ireland, 2,700,493; Scotland, 84,623; Wales, 12,435; 
and from other parts of Great Britain, not specified, 
544,107, so that the total from that empire, in all its 
parts, during the period named, reached the splendid 
total of 3,857,850, or more than an eighth of the gross 
total of the population of Great Britain and Ireland in 
the year 1870, and nearly one half of the whole sum 
of our increase from immigration during our centen¬ 
nial period. The remainder of our increase comes, for 
the major part, from the German Empire, of course in- 


UNITED STATES. 


85 


eluding Prussia, wliicli amounts in the gross to 2,363,- 
483. from the best educated population in Europe, and 
therefore the most enterprising. Austria, under the 
Ilapsburgs, is more drowsy and contented, consequent¬ 
ly only 9,398 have wandered across the sea to find 
Fresh woods and pastures new,” during the same 
term. Sweden and Norway compare very favorably 
with Austria, having contributed 153,928 hardy citi¬ 
zens to our muster roll. Denmark has sent us 23,425 
from the far north. AYe have received 31,118 phleg¬ 
matic Hollanders, an excellent item to be added to our 
too excitable community. From the Swiss Cantons 
we have been enriched by a contingent of 61,572 
mountaineers, who have apparently overcome their 
tendency to nostalgia, so that the majority remain with 
us. The Kingdom of Belgium has spared us 17,278 
of the subjects of Leopold. France, never a colonizing 
country to any considerable extent, has sent us nearly 
a quarter of a million, the numbers being 245,812. 
Spain has not entirely consumed her surplus of people 
in her Carlist wars of succession, and 23,214 have 
found their way over the Atlantic to our shores, 
Portugal, more peaceful and prosperous, has only lost. 
4,695 by immigration to this country. Italy, the* 
kingdom of Victor Emanuel, including Sicily and Sar¬ 
dinia, his patrimonial possession, has been depleted of 
26,786, forming in this nation many nuclei that will 
not fail to aggregate largely in succeeding decades.. 
Pussia, with her immense territory and her restrictive 
policy, has still lost 4,045 of her people, without count¬ 
ing the 4,038 Poles, who have been in part driven over 
the sea by her action since Kosciusko fell. From 
British America we have attracted 284,491 ; from 
Afexico, 20,152; from Central America, 1,064; from 
the West Indies, 50,250 have come to better quarters 
than could be found in “the still vext Berrnoothes;” 
from South America 7,644; from the sunny and beau¬ 
tiful Azores, 6,885; and besides 492,245 from unspeci¬ 
fied countries, which help to make up the grand total 




86 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


of 7,803,865 ; the Celestial Empire, once entirely closed 
against western civilization, has opened her ports to 
emit 109,502 of the countrymen of Ah Sin, immortal¬ 
ized by the genius of Bret Harte in “ The Heathen 
Chinee.” The record is certainly interesting to philo¬ 
sophical observers. The population thus received by 
this country from all the rest of the world has been 
distributed among the states and territories so that the 
first named contained 38,113,253, in the year 1870, and 
the territories 442,730, the increase during ten years 
having been, in the territories, 183,153, and in the states, 
6,929,509. Alabama had, in 1870, 996,992 ; Arkansas, 
484,471; California, 560,244; Connecticut, 537,454; 
Delaware, 125,015; Fiorida, 187,748; Georgia, 1,184,- 
109; Illinois, 2,539,891; Indiana, 1,686,637; Iowa, 
1,191,702; Kansas, 364,399; Kentucky, 1,321,011; 
Louisiana, 726,915; Maine, 626,915; Maryland, 780,894; 
Massachusetts, 1,457,351; Michigan, 1,184,059; Minne¬ 
sota, 439,706 ; Mississippi, 827,922 ; Missouri, 1,721,295; 
Kebraska, 122,993 ; Nevada, 42,291; New Hampshire, 
318,300 ; New Jersey, 906,096 ; New York, 4,382,759 ; 
North Carolina, 1,071,361; Ohio, 2,665,260; Oregon, 
90,923; Pennsylvania, 3,521,791; Khode Island, 217,- 
353; South Carolina, 705,606; Tennessee, 1,258,520; 
Texas, 818,579; Vermont, 330,551; Virginia, 1,225,- 
163; West Virginia, 442,014, and Wisconsin, 1,054,670. 
The territories cannot be fully stated, as Alaska has 
never yet been included in an enumeration, but the 
area of 577,390 square miles has already attracted the 
attention of a considerable colony from Ireland, and 
at the end of the present decade will begin to make a 
showing. Arizona has only been once numbered, when 
it showed 9,658. Colorado had, in 1870, 39,864; but 
henceforth that region will be numbered under another 
head ; Dakota had only 14.181; the District of Colum¬ 
bia, 131,700; Idaho, 14,999; Indian Territory, with 
its area of 71,000 square miles, has yet to be enumer- 
lated; Montana, has 20,595; New Mexico, 91,874; 
Utah, 86,786; Washington, 23,955, and Wyoming, 


UNITED STATES. 


37 


9,118. Utah would have been a state, in all proba¬ 
bility, long since, but for the dominance of Morrnonism. 
and its attendant polygamy, which is a difficult prob¬ 
lem for the politicians and statesmen of our day. 

— It will be seen that the rate of increase has 
I been very unequal in the several divisions indicated ; 
I thus in Nevada the progression has been more than 500 
' per cent.; in Nebraska, over 300; in Kansas, 240; and 
in Minnesota, over 150. In the territories there have 
I been increases of 187 per cent, in Colorado since then 

j become a state ; in Utah, 116 per cent, and in Wash- 

t ington, 112 per cent Coming below these large aver- 

I ages, there are still enormous increments to show, as 

for instance in Iowa, 77 per cent; in the District of 
Columbia, 75 ; in Oregon, 73; in Michigan, 58 ; in 
Illinois, 48; and in California, 471 per cent; rates of 
growth which compare very favorably with the older 
states in which a higher development demands special 
fitness and capital as conditions precedent to success in 
life for the mass; because of the greater density of 
the population with which new comers must compete. 
The former slave states have only averaged an increase 
! of 17 per cent, although some of them have grown 
more than 30 per cent, where the soil and the climate 
have drawn the people in spite of the setoff, which in 
! the future disappears from our record. New England 
has increased in its several states less than the aver- 
I age of the union because the ground has long been 
^ comparatively well covered. Maine has decreased 2 
percent ; South Carolina has fallen off 3 per cent., 
and New Hampshire, the state of which Daniel Web¬ 
ster said that it was a good location from which to 
emigrate, has only increased 2 per cent New Mexico 
has increased little more than 1 per cent, although the 
density of its population is small, but many circum¬ 
stances have tended to postpone the day for an indus¬ 
trial conquest there. Massachusetts, Connecticut and 
Khode Island are densely peopled by comparison with 
the rest of the states, although sparsely occupied by 




88 


COUNTRIES OP NORTH AMERICA. 


contrast ■with other countries, and the increase ■^dthin 
their area has only averaged about 18 per cent, in the 
decade from 1860 to 1870j but their populations 
average on the three states 154 to the square mile. 

7, — The countries which have prospered best as a 
rule are those in which the population has resulted 
from a mixture of races. This fact is so well known 
that it would be a work of superogation to cite in¬ 
stances. The population which is now being aggre¬ 
gated within the union should consequently possess 
advantages second to none on the globe, seeing that of 
the five initial races from which all the nations seem 
to have been peopled, four are represented in our 
Great Republic: including the Indian, the Ethiopian, 
the Mongolian, and the Caucasian or superior race ; 
sometimes described by their tints of complexion as 
the White, Yellow, Red and Black races. The Indi¬ 
an population cannot be said to be included in our 
union, properly, as they only, to a very limited extent, 
embrace the customs and obey the laws of progress. 
When the last census was taken they numbered 883,- 
712, of which 234,740 were nomadic, scattered over 
the thinly peopled western territories; 96,366 were 
living under agencies and upon government reserva¬ 
tions, colorably participating in the work of civiliza¬ 
tion; and 25,731 were living outside tribal relations as 
broken bands. The Ethiopian race came to the coun¬ 
try as semi-British importations before the war of In¬ 
dependence had made us masters of our own destiny, 
and the legacy of wrong has cost us dearly. Four 
years after the commencement. of our era in 1790, 
there were 757,343 negroes in the United States, and 
of that aggregate only 59,446 were free. In the year 
1860 there were 487,996 free negroes, and 3,953,760 
slaves, making an aggregate of 4,441,756. The cen¬ 
sus in 1870 showed a total of 4,868,387 free negroes, 
from nearly the whole of whom the shackles had been 
stricken by the war which commenced at Fort Sumter. 
During the decade that preceded the Great Rebellion, 


UNITED STATES. 


89 


the increase of that section of our population was a 
little more than 22 per cent., while the general increase 
was over 35 per cent. ; and while the war progressed 
and afterwards, the unsettled condition of affairs which 
depressed the general average to 22.64 per cent., repre¬ 
sented the increase of the whole colored population 
by 9.6 per cent. 

8. — In the year 1870 the proportion of colored 
people to the sum total of our population was as 14|- to 
100, but in some cities the preponderance was largely 
in favor of the negroes, as for instance in Charleston, 
i S. C., where the numbers were 26 black to less than 
24 white. The proportion in the several states and 
territories may be given with advantage, but the whites 
predominate in every section except in South Carolina 
and Mississippi. South Carolina had 59 per cent, of 
negroes; Mississippi, 53; Florida, 48.7; Alabama,47.7 ; 
Georgia, 46; Virginia, 41.9; North Carolina, 36.5; 
District of Columbia, 33 ; Texas, 30.9 ; Arkansas, 27.8; 
Tennessee, 25.5; ^laryland, 22.4; Delaware, 18.2; 
Kentucky, 16.9 ; Indian Territory, 9.4 ; and Missouri, 
6.8. In the remainder of the union the proportions 
are much smaller, as for instance in California, Oregon, 
Iowa, Vermont, Maine, Wisconsin, Arizona, Colorado, 
Minnesota, Massachusetts, Nebraska, Nevada, New 
Hampshire, Montana, New Mexico, Utah and Wash¬ 
ington Territoiy there are only small fractions of 1 per 
cent. In Connecticut there is a little more than 1 per 
cent.; and the same proportion, bating fractions, ap¬ 
plies to Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, New York, Penn¬ 
sylvania and Wyoming. Louisiana has 5 per cent. 
Kansas, whose first draft of a state constitution pro¬ 
hibited the presence of a negro, bond or free upon the 
soil, has a little more than 4 per cent. New Jersey 
has a little more than 3; West Virginia, 4; and Ohio, 
Ehode Island, Dakota and Idaho a fraction more than 
2 per cent. The prosperity of states may be held to 
be, as a rule, in the inverse ratio to the preponderance 
of the colored population, not because of any fault iu 



40 COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

that section of the people, but because of the social 
condition, to which their numbers testify. i 

9 . — Of late years some few Japanese have come 
into this country as settlers, but they are generally in- ' 
eluded with other Mongolians under the head Chinese, 

as their number is small. Chinese are found in no ' i 
less than twenty-three states. California had 35,565 
in the year 1860, but the entire Mongolian immigra¬ 
tion only amounted to four per cent, of the total in¬ 
crease from that source of growth. The Chinese do 
not emigrate as families, nor with the idea that this 
country shall be their permanent home, as only seven ! 
per cent, of the Mongolian stream consists of females, i 
and they are to a very large extent brought over by 
speculators to the great cities on the Pacific slope, 
without matrimonial intentions. The highest number ' 
of Chinese arriving in the country in any one year was 
less than 15,000. China is so entirely the engrossing 
idea with the followers of Con Futze or Confucius, 
that those who come to this country under contract, 
specially provide for the return of their remains to 
their native country should they die during their term 
of service. The natural increase of that race in this 
country can hardly enter into the calculations of the 
economist for many generations to come, until the 
stunted and peculiar civilization of the Celestial em¬ 
pire has been abraded. 

10. — The Caucasian or White races constitute the 

bulk of our population, numbering 86.45 per cent, of 
the bulk, or in all 33,589,857. The Aryan race may 
be said to comprise the numbers thus given, although 
some writers make distinctions, more or less valuable, 
speaking of the Aryans as the Indo Germanic and the 
Indo European race. ; 

11 . — The only Semitic element in the population 
of the United States is that of the Hebrews, a very 
valuable contingent among commercial peoples, but 
their numbers cannot be specified ; it is, however, esti- I 
mated that their total falls below 100,000. The Aryan 



UNITED STATES. 


41 


race or races have almost entirely contributed to the 
substantial progress of this nation, the Giermanic and 
Celtic nationalities prevailing largely. 

12 . — The Anglo Saxon or English, more particu¬ 
larly, were the first settlers, contributing to our com¬ 
monwealth their idiosyncrasies, language, laws and 
; institutions so completely that the nation will never 
cease to show the impress and direction thus given in 
the imitation of these communities, however various 
may be the influx from other countries, and however 
vigorous the growth as among ourselves. 

1»3. —The German element in our population has 
been a steady influx for many years, except where 
local circumstances have dulled the taste of the people 
for more distant enterprise. The wars of the first Na¬ 
poleon may have been one of the causes that kept 
down the aggregate of immigration before the year 
1819 to 250,000; but since that date, with abatements 
' during the Franco Prussian AVar, which fora time ab¬ 
sorbed all Germany, there has been observable a con¬ 
tinuous flow of German peoples towards favored sec¬ 
tions of the states. Eural pursuits engross a large 
proportion of the colonies that come, sometimes suffi¬ 
ciently numerous to sustain in a very large degree the 
j customs of the Fatherland. There are such settle- 
! ments to be found in Iowa, and in the Shenandoah 

I Valley of Virginia ; in Wisconsin ; and in Pennsylvania 

j there are many districts in which the language still 
I continues to be spoken by native born American de- 
j scendants of the original settlers, from the Palatinate. 

I The Hollanders, in whose hands New York city was 

New Amsterdam, on the Island of Manhattan, settled 
the southern part of New York state, and the western 
shore of the Delaware Piver was colonized by the 
Swedes. 

14 . — The Celtic element in our population is very 
largely Irish, and from the earliest times that con¬ 
tingent of the mass has been considerable. After the 
establishment of the Prince of Orange on the English 



42 


COUNTEIES Or KORTII AMEKICA. 


throne, and the defeat of James II at Boyne Water, 
the flow oi Irish emigration this way became large, so 
that in little more than half a century, ending in 1745, 
the era of the last attempt of the Stuart pretenders to 
the English throne, 268,000 persons had come to this 
country from Ireland. Soon after the Treatj^ of Ver¬ 
sailles had been subscribed, there were systems adopted 
under which the nationalities of new arrivals were more 
or less ascertained, and it is calculated that of the 
165,000 immigrants that came to this country between 
1700 and 181-1, a term of twentj^-five 3 mars, nearly 
nine-tenths were Irish, and very largely from the south 
of Ireland. The laboring class in the large manufac¬ 
turing and commercial centers are mainly Irish, and 
comparatively few go into the rural districts to engage 
in agriculture, partly because the thriftless sj^sterns of 
farming which were common in the land of their birth 
could not endure in competition with the customs of 
this country. 

15*— \¥hen the Huguenots were persecuted by the 
Duke of Guise and his followers in the sixteenth cen¬ 
tury, many came to this country and formed colonies, 
and the same fact was noticeable in the seventeeth 
and eighteenth centuries, when the revocation of the 
Edict of Nantes disgusted the Protestant element in 
France, as well as in other times of persecution and 
spoliation. When IMissouri and Louisiana were pur¬ 
chased of the first Napoleon, the population of these 
regions were almost exclusively French, and there was 
a large settlement of Frenchmen in South Carolina at 
a much earlier date. Florida, Texas, California and 
New Mexico, successively annexed, have added a con¬ 
tingent of Spaniards and Spanish half-breeds, amount¬ 
ing, however, to only a few thousands, still enough 
to bring up the aggregate of the Eomanic nations rep¬ 
resented here to respectable numbers. The ancient 
Sclavonic race or nations, represented by Kussians, 
Ik)les, and some few of the ruder peoples, contribute 
but little to our mass, and are soon completel^^ merged, 
in the general array. 


UNITED STATES. 


43 


16 . — The ethnological interest which attaches to 
the question of the combination of races, which will 
in the course of years, or rather of generations, evolve a 
race distinguishably American, makes it worth while 
to pursue the inquiry, not exhaustively, but for the 
purpose of directing other intellects to the subject. 
The materials yet at our disposal are too scanty and 
rough to allow of conclusive generalization. Since 
the year 1820 nationality has been specified in the re¬ 
turns as to immigi'ation ; before that date estimates only 
could be made upon loose data. In the year mention¬ 
ed, 1820, our white population numbered 7,862,166, 
and since that time our white immigration comes with¬ 
in about half a million of our entire white population 
in 1870, which was then 33,586,989. 

17 . —The excess of births over deaths, or natural 
increase, represents 17,930,000, between the years 1820 
and 1870, a term of fifty years. It will not be difficult 
for any person having a taste in that direction, to de- 
vide the increase thus described, among the American 
white population proper, as shown in the first named 
year — as the quarter of a million that had in all been 
drawn by immigration, after the first settlement up to 
1820, cannot be a disturbing cause of any magnitude — 
and the contributions from the various nationalities 
from which the vast bulk of immigration has come, 
since that time, so that the numbers pertaining to each 
section of the mass known as the American 'people 
may be credited to their several sources. This subject 
can be followed to results at once curious and valu¬ 
able. 

VI. INDUSTRIES. 

1 . — The number of individuals engaged in occu¬ 
pations and receiving payment by wages, commissions 
and salaries, was in the year 1870, 12,505,993, of 
which 1,836,288 were females, and 10,669,645 males. 
The aggregate of j^ersons without recognizable occu¬ 
pations was singularly large, but the number of stn- 





44 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


dents preparing for professional life, of other persons 
whose bodily infirmities precluded them from labor, 
and the too considerable sections included in the 
pauper and criminal classes, account for nearly the 
whole of the population between the ages of 16 and 
60 years. There were more than nine million 
females above sixteen years of age who were not stated 
as engaged in gainful industries, but of that number it 
is assumed that nearly 7,500,000 were keeping house, 
man}^ lived upon accumulated properties, others were 
attending school with or without the prospect of en¬ 
gaging in tuition, some were living at home with their 
parents and others supported by their sons and daugh¬ 
ters, besides which of course a class exists everywhere 
comprised of paupers, vagrants and worse. 

2. —There were according to thecensus, very nearly 
six millions of persons engaged in agriculture in 1870, 
including 2,977,711 farmers and planters ; 2,885,996 
agricultural laborers; 81,485 gardeners and nursery¬ 
men ; 6,588 stock raisers, and 5,590 herdsmen employed 
by raisers of stock. 

3. — Professional and Personal Services employ 
2,684,798 persons, divided into upwards of seventy 
distinct occupations; embracing 1,081,666 laborers, 
whose avocations could not be more particularly de¬ 
scribed, and 975,784 domestic servants, of whom more 
than 100,000 were males. The returns show that 
about one family in eight in the United States employ 
female help. Of the whole number of servants the 
majority claimed to be American born ; 145,956 were 
Irish : 42,866 were German; 14,878 were British 
American ; 12,581 English ; 5,420 Chinese, leaving 
728,180 as of American nativity. The other several 
occupations such as hairdressers and barbers, boarding 
house keepers, hotel keepers, restaurateurs, clerks and 
employes in hotels and other such places of en¬ 
tertainment, clerks in government offices, and laun¬ 
dresses with their employes amount in the aggregate 
to 210,997. There were authors and lecturers, 468, and 




UKITED STATES. 


45 


608 chemists; 164 metallurgists ; 43,874 clerg\mien ; 
7,839 dentists ; 4,703 civil engineers; 5,286 journalists; 
2,671 land surveyors ; 40,736 naturalists ; *62,383 sur¬ 
geons and physicians, and 1,169 veterinary surgeons. 
The line arts had about six thousand persons engaged 
in their diffusion, including 2,017 architects ; 934 de¬ 
signers and draughtsmen ; 775 painters ; 250 sculptors, 
and 2,948 artists, who were not more particular in 
their description than that word implies. The class of 
teachers amounted to 136,570, of whom 9,491 devoted 
their attention to music ; 149 to dancing; 108 to draw¬ 
ing and painting, the rest being engaged in general 
tuition. 

4 . — Trade and Transportation necessarily include 
the great commercial class throughout the community, 
aggregating nearly twelve hundred thousand. Bank¬ 
ers and brokers number 14,362, and their official and 
clerical staff amounted to 10,265 ; the railroad enter¬ 
prise of the country at that time employed 163,303 
persons, and the electric telegraph, 8,579, besides 
which the various express companies employ 9,396. 
Traders and dealers numbered 1,262,268 ; their clerks, 
222,504 ; their bookkeepers and accountants, 31,177 ; 
their commercial travelers, 7.262, and their salesclerks, 
14,203. There were 56,663 sailors; 21,332 boatmen 
and watermen ; 7,338 canalrnen ; 7,975 men and women 
employed on steamboats, and 3,567 persons engaged in 
the freight and shipping business. 

5 . — Manufactures, Mechanical Pursuits and Mining 
in their several departments, employed in 1870, 

I 2,707,421 persons, including carpenters, 344,596; boot 
: and shoemakers, 171,127; tailors and seamstresses, 

' 161,820; miners, 152,107; blacksmiths, 141,714; cot¬ 

ton mill operatives, 111,606; woolen mill operatives, 
58,836 ; mill and factory operatives who did not speci¬ 
fy their particular employments, 41,619; masons, 
80,710; painters and varnishers, 85,123; printers, 
89,860, and manufacturers, 42,877, showing an aggre¬ 
gate of immense value to the commonwealth. 




46 


COUNTKIES OF ISTOKTH AMERICA. 


VII. .EDUCATION. 

1, — Schools have always been recognized in this 
countr}^ as part of the great means most to be desired 
for the amelioration of human conditions. The great 
University at Harvard was founded by the early set¬ 
tlers in Massachusetts only twenty years after their 
arduous career was begun on this continent, and long 
before that era schools, simple but effective, had been 
in operation to secure for the children of the Pilgrims 
those advantages which had been so well used by their 
sires. Schooling and mental culture of a tolerably se¬ 
vere order prevailed in all the colonies to some extent, 
and other colleges soon followed upon the establish¬ 
ment of Harvard, so that even at the very beginning 
mind was reverenced as the best gift of Heaven. The 
amount of money expended by individuals and by the 
community.at large in this country challenges favor¬ 
able comparison with like outlays for school purposes 
in the several grades in any other country in the world. 
Tlie number and value of our school buildings and the 
means providing in such establishments for the culture 
of youth are not excelled even if equaled anywhere. 
During the year 1871, there were benefactions from pri¬ 
vate citizens to the several educational establishments 
of the country amounting in all to $8,592,000. Such 
gifts have little value by comparison with the munifi¬ 
cent endowments of some of the foundation schools in 
Europe, but when it is borne in mind that such dona¬ 
tions are afforded from the benevolence of the living 
generation, and that they can never fail to provoke 
emulation, it will be seen that the future of our school 
system is munificently cared for. 

2, — New England first originated a general system 
of education, substituting method on a large scale for 
the somewhat spasmodic efforts of individual?, and 
while the colonies were yet in their childhood, provis¬ 
ion was made in the year 1628, for the proper school¬ 
ing of every child in the settlements. Nine years later 



UNITED STATES. 


47 


orders were made that there should be a school for 
every fifty families, and for every hundred families 
provision for a school for higher instruction. Taxes 
raised in each district supported these establishments, 
and the system, with few modifications, may now be 
seen operating throughout the union. The govern¬ 
ments of Monarchical Europe have ministers of instruc¬ 
tion whose work it is to supervise more or less imme¬ 
diately, the school systems under their charge, but in 
this country every state provides its own facilities and 
regulates the mechanism by which efficiency appears 
most likely to be secured ; the federal government 
has no voice in the management. Congress has munifi¬ 
cently aided the pursuit of mental culture, by reserv¬ 
ing 640 acres of land in every township of the public 
domain to form an endowment for schools, so that 
twelve million acres are now being applied for educa¬ 
tional purposes. Permanent school funds have also 
accumulated in many of the older states, but direct 
taxation is the customary means resorted to for school 
support, and with few exceptions, the assessment is 
cheerfully met. 

3. — The Common Schools give elementary training 
merely, such as reading, writing, arithmetic, geography 
and history, so far as to afford an outline merely, of 
the history of the United States. Schools of a higher 
grade, both public and private, are however within 
the reach of all classes, in country districts as well as in 
cities, and bv such means grammar schools, high 
schools and institutions secondary to the greater col¬ 
legiate establishments give to the rising youth facili¬ 
ties to acquire Latin, Grerman, French, mathematics, 
and the rudiments of natural science. Normal Schools 
for the training of teachers are provided in almost 
every state and in most of the advanced territories. 
There were one hundred and ten normal schools in the 
states in 1871, Texas and Nevada being the only ex¬ 
ceptions to the rule that every state should supply 
normal instruction. Illinois has nine normal schools, 





48 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

New York has ten, Ohio nine, Pennsylvania eight, 
Massachusetts seven, Missouri six, and West Virginia 
and Wisconsin five each. 

4. — The number of Colleges and Universities in 
the Union is the greatest that can be found in any 
country in the world, and usually the facilities are 
well nigh perfect for imparting classical, professional, 
and scientific training. There were in 1871 no less 
than 372 colleges, capable of conferring academic de¬ 
grees, 56 scientific and agricultural schools, 40 law 
schools, 117 theological seminaries, 94 medical, phar¬ 
maceutical and dental schools, 136 colleges for women, 
besides business colleges and commercial academies to 
the number of 84. Many of the commercial colleges 
are doubtless limited affairs, and some of the other 
establishments are more ambitious of the name than 
capable of the work of the true college, but after 
making all such deductions there remains a large ag¬ 
gregate of capacity for the training of manhood and 
womanhood, which will yet attain still greater scope 
and means of usefulness. Many of the institutions 
now in operation in this country have been munifi¬ 
cently endowed, and will compare, if not for wealth 
and antiquity, yet in every other way, with the oldest 
and best institutions that contribute toward the educa¬ 
tion of youth in Europe. Yale, Harvard and Prince¬ 
ton Universities are cases in point, to which may be 
added Columbia College in New York and the State 
University of Michigan. America is proud of such 
institutions, and visitors from all parts of the world 
admit their excellence. It would be well for us un¬ 
doubtedly to limit the number of our establishments 
for the higher walks of culture, and to concentrate the 
means at our disposal upon a few, so that every de¬ 
sirable facility might be afforded therein, instead of 
diffusing immense sums of money in the erection of 
innumerable buildings, which are afterwards but par¬ 
tially sustained for want of sufficient capital. Lat¬ 
terly this tendency has become more marked, and 




UNITED STATES. 


49 


many of the more munificent of our citizens who pro¬ 
pose to devote part of their surplus wealth to mental 
training, will render more effective service by bestow¬ 
ing additional endowments upon the colleges and uni¬ 
versities now in action than by assisting to establish 
new schools for the coming generation. Where this 
idea is not acceptable, it is of course well that the best 
that can be done may be, but in most cases the men 
and women who wish to give their aid toward the 
highest culture are quite willing to take counsel as to 
the best means. 

5. — Uarvard College has precedence as the old¬ 
est of all the colleo^iate institutions in the United 
States, as it was founded in 1636. The academical 
department includes regular courses of religion, phi¬ 
losophy, rhetoric, oratory, history, languages, ancient 
and modern, living and dead, natural history, ph 3 'si- 
ology, chemistry and mineralogy, physics and mathe¬ 
matics. There is also a divinity school, a law school, 
a medical school, the Lawrence scientific school, which 
prepares the student for mining, engineering and prac¬ 
tical geolog}', a school of astronomy and a dental 
school. Tiiere were 76 professors and 643 students in 
Harvard College in 1871, and the position of the estab¬ 
lishment in Cambridge, near to Boston, favors the 
largest measure of success. The libraiy at Harvard 
is large and valuable and now draws near to 200,000 
volumes, some of which are extremely rare works. 
Yale College, in Yew Haven, Conn., is 3 'ounger than 
Harvard b}' sixty-two years, but it is very efficient 
The course of training there offered is assisted and 
varied by an academical department much like that at 
Harvard ; by the Sheffield Scientific School; a theolo¬ 
gical department; a law department; a medical de¬ 
partment, and a School of the Fine Arts. There were 
68 professors in* 1871, and 840 students. The library 
at Vale amounts in the aggregate to 100,000 volumes, 
and there are in addition valuable collections for stu¬ 
dents in botany and zoolog}', an observatoiy for as- 

4 




50 COUNTEIES OF NORTH AMERICA. ' 

tronomical purposes, and a first-class chemical labora¬ 
tory such as few such institutions in any part of the 
world can excel. 

6. — Columbia College, New York, was founded in 

1754, consequently it is now approaching the comple¬ 
tion of the first quarter of its second century. The 
college is well endowed, and it includes a school of | 
letters and science, a school of mines, and a law school. 
There were in 1871 three hundred students and thirty- 
four professors, besides which the college of physi- ; 
cians and surgeons in New York city, with 326 stu¬ 
dents and 28 professors, form part of the beneficent > 

machinery for culture offered to the young men of the | 

present age by Columbia College. In the year 1871 | 

there were 111 colleges, which numbered ten or more 
than ten professors and teachers in each in the union, 1 
but as will be seen it would be impracticable to give a J 
detailed notice of so many institutions without fa- ij| 
tiguing the reader. There are sixteen institutions, ,;j 
with thirty or more than thirty teachers in each, and ;i 
seven with more than forty. Ann Arbor, Michigan, 
has 57, the Cornell University has 48, in Ithaca, New ' | 
York, and the University of Pennsylvania has fifty- 
four. 

7. — Agricultural Colleges and scientific schools 
numbered 68 in 1871, and the work being done by t 
such establishments is already considerable, but it be- 
gins to dawn upon the minds of their promoters that f;' 
a much wider field of usefulness lies before them j 
when the school is made more entirely practical, so 
that the work of the farm, the handling of first-class ’> 
machinery, and the teaching of the laboratory can 
always run together in experimental philosophy, 
which will fortify the agriculturist of the immediate f 
future for the grand enterprises which await him, 
while preparing his mind in other respects for the < 
tasks which citizenship must more and more impose 
upon the tillers of the soil. Many of the colleges i 
which have been established to assist in diffusing a j 



UNITED STATES. 


51 


knowledge of the art and science of agricalture, have 
been associated with other colleges and universities, 
but many stand alone. Twenty-four institutions have 
been aided by the general government, by means of 
land grants from the public domain, and in that num- 
1 ber there are 180 professors and more than 2,000 stu- 
, dents. 

8 . — The Federal Government maintains two schools 
specially devoted to the art of war, the U. S. Military 
Academy and the U. S. iN’aval Academy. The West 
Point Academy has given to us a well qualified class 
of men whose military talents and whose courage have 
alike been proven during the most sanguinary struggle 
that the world has perhaps ever seen, but concerning 
that matter we shall have occasion to speak in another 
place. West Point, as our readers connot fail to know, 
is on the Hudson Piver, surrounded by a beautiful 
country, such as can hardly be surpassed for quiet and 
majestic charms. The school dates from 1802, and 
nearly all the officers in the regular army have owed 
their training to that institution. The control of the 
establishment devolves upon a superintendent and hia 
stall, consisting of an adjutant quartermaster, treasurer,, 
surgeon, and two assistant surgeons. The superin- 
j tendent is almost invariably a military officer of higb 
I rank, and the appointment confers distinction. The- 
: academic staff is distinct from the military staff already 
j indicated, and it consists of a commandant of cadets, 

I eight professors and thirty-one assistant professors and 
' instructors in the several branches of study involved. 

I Instruction in tactics is given by the commandant of 
I cadets. The number of pupils is limited to 227, and 
I the discipline enforced is very strict. The course of 
training is as nearly as possible complete, and it em¬ 
braces military tactics, engineering, natural and experi¬ 
mental philosophy, mathematics, drawing, chemistry, 

' mineralogy and geology, ethics and law, the French 
and Spanish languages, ordnance and gunnery. There 
is always great competition for the honor of an ap- 




62 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


pointment to the academy, and candidates must pass a 
preliminary examination in reading, writing, elemen¬ 
tary arithmetic, English grammar, geography, and the 
history of this country. Besides passing creditably 
through such an examination, there are limitations as 
to age, as the candidate must not be less than seven¬ 
teen nor more than twenty-two years of age at the time 
of admission. The academy in which young men are 
trained for the Navy is at Annapolis, Maryland; and 
primarily the management is vested in a superintend¬ 
ent and eight naval officer assistants. The staff of 
professors is very strong, as it consists of sixty-seven 
duly qualified teachers, competent to give instruction 
in seamanship, steam engineering, mathematics, astron¬ 
omy and navigation, natural philosophy, drawing, 
ethics and English literature, and the French and 
Spanish languages. The limitation as to age is lower 
in the naval academy at Annapolis than in the mili¬ 
tary school at AVest Point, as candidates must not ex¬ 
ceed eighteen years of age, and must be over fourteen. 
The number is limited to 253 at present, and an exam¬ 
ination similar to that already mentioned, which must 
be passed at AA^est Point, is also a sine qua non at An¬ 
napolis. The value of such institutions cannot be 
overrated, and it is matter for congratulation that the 
youth of to-day highly value the advantages offered. 

9. — Alany circumstances conspire to "keep down 
the average of education in this country, in spite of 
the immense outlays undertaken by individuals and 
communities to diffuse the blessings ^-ihorough train¬ 
ing. Nearly 15 per cent, of the whole pojmlation can 
neither read nor write, the number of such unfortu¬ 
nates above the age of ten years being 5,568,141:. In 
the slave states, for many years before the Great Ke- 
bellion, the labors of the schoolmaster were entirely 
forbidden among the colored population, and among 
the lower class of whites there was little ambition for 
•culture. Add to that unfortunate fact the well-known 
circumstance that a large proportion of the immigra- 



UNITED STATES. 


63 


tion that comes to these shores is from countries and 
from classes in which sound instruction and competent 
training are the exception rather than the rule. Italy, 
France, and even England, are less happily placed 
, than our own country in this respect, as their propor- 
' tion of illiterates is much larger, while of course there 
is not in either of the countries named the same ex¬ 
cuse to he made on the score of a recent enfranchise¬ 
ment of nearly five millions of an oppressed race; or 
that a large stream of immigration depresses the gen¬ 
eral average. Still there is a residue of ignorance and 
neglect, that cannot be accounted for among ourselves 
in either of the ways named, and every intellectual 
and patriotic American will see therein the necessity 
I for wider and more continuous effort. There are some 
states in which elementary schools are not sufficiently 
numerous to meet the wants of the communitj^, and 
there are localities and classes in which scarcely any¬ 
thing less than the strong arm of the law will suffice 
to bring within the discipline of the school those 
youths for whom training is most wanted. It is 
claimed hy some persons, whose opinions are worthy 
of grave consideration, that the low rates of remunera- 
! tion afforded to school teachers of both sexes have an 
I effect in dulling the avidity of youth for proper cul- 

i ture, inasmuch as it betra^^s a want of practical appre- 

I ciation for the fruits of study, in a peculiarly practical 
age. Space will not permit a thorough discussion of 
the question here, but much could be said in favor of 
the proposition. The southern states are still far be¬ 
hind other parts of the Union in providing school ac¬ 
commodations, and the scattered population in new 
territories cannot possibly give as much attention to 
such matters as the important duty demands. Some 
portions of the country have framed enactments to 
compel attendance at school, and although, at the first 
glance, such regulations seem antagonistic to the 
I genius of our institutions, the interests of the nation 
at large and of the individuals immediately concerned 
must override all sentimental scruples. 




54 COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

10. — The areas of illiteracy may almost be said to 
be geographical. From Chesapeake Bay, a line drawn 
through the Carolinas, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, 
Mississippi, Louisiana, southern Arkansas and Texas, 
would inclose an area in which the number of those 
who are unable to read and write ranges from twenty 
to sixty per cent., and, in some considerable stretches 
of country, more than sixty per cent, are unable to 
read and write their own names. The northern parts 
of the New England States, central New York, north¬ 
ern Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, southern 
Michigan and nearly the whole of Iowa, show an im¬ 
mense population in which barely five per cent, fail to 
read and write. The balance of the states north of 
the Missouri and Ohio Eivers vary in their returns 
from five per cent, of illiterates to twenty. The causes 
which account for the variations now pointed out, 
would permit of ample elucidation did space allow. 
The facts are entirely beyond question. 

11. — Books constitute the university always open to 
the adult whose mind has been cultivated up to the 
point of being able to appreciate their value, and all 
things considered, there is no nation perhaps to be 
found that has within the same brief period so largely 
increased its public and private collections of books 
in proportion to its native born population. Ameri¬ 
cans are readers, in the northern and western states 
more particularly, and in almost every household, 
however limited, the works of some far popular au¬ 
thors may be found. When the last census was com¬ 
piled in 1870, there were found to be 108,800 libraries 
in private hands, with an aggregate of 26,072,420 vol¬ 
umes, and the public libraries numbered 56,015, with 
19,459,518 volumes, the gross total being 45,528,938 
books in 164,815 libraries; but that statement, large 
as it may seem, falls far below the truth. The value 
of books published, and the excellence observable in 
some editions of the best works, cannot be enjoyed by 
the ordinary reader of the poorer class except by 





UNITED STATES. 


55 


; means of public libraries, in which such aids to good 
taste, sound erudition and developed intellect are 
made available to all comers. The incompetency of 
! some of the officials engaged in collecting the census, 
rendered the returns necessarily untrue as to some lo¬ 
calities. The deputy marshal for the state of Con- 
; necticut gave no returns as to private libraries, and of 
course that state would, if the documentary evidence 
were taken as conclusive, occupy a very low status 
among the other states of the union. It is assumed, 
apparently on good grounds, that the congressional 
library in Washington, which in 1870 contained 
190,000 volumes, is the largest collection of books on 
this continent. Pennsylvania had in all her libraries, 
public and private, so far as returns were procured, 
6,447,840 volumes; ISTew York, 6,310,302; Ohio, 
3,687,363; Illinois, 3,323,914; Massachusetts, 3,017,- 
813; Michigan, 2,174,744; Kentucky, 1,909.230; Ma¬ 
ryland, 1,713,483; Indiana, 1,125,553; and in the 
state of Missouri, 1,065,638. Several of the states 
made returns showing less than 1,000,000, but more 
than 500,000 volumes ; it is however probable that 
the statement is below the fact in many instances: 
Wisconsin, Vermont, Tennessee, Rhode Island, North 
Carolina, New Ha’mpshire, New Jersey, Louisiana, 
Alabama, Iowa, and the District of Columbia. With 
reference to the last named district, the congressional 
I library of 190,000 volumes may be taken as some 
i evidence that the return could be somwhat vmed, 
with an approach to truth. Wyoming and Arizona, 
with their sparse populations, have less than three 
thousand volumes in all libraries, public and private, 
so far as could be ascertained. The returns are of 
course partial. 

12, — It has been estimated that the United States 
of America print and issue a larger number of news¬ 
papers than all the rest of the world put together, and 
although some of the publications named scarcely 
deserve to rank with the broadsheets published in the 





56 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

metropolitan cities, they yet supply a want in the 
community, and in some degree, even in the worst 
cases help to sustain the intellectual tone of the pub¬ 
lic. In the year 1870, the census shows that there 
were 5,871 newspapers and periodicals issuing no less 
than 1,508,548,250 copies per annum, with a circula¬ 
tion of 20,842,475. Forty numbers were thus pub¬ 
lished during the year for every individual, assuming 
that the distribution was evenly made ; but of course 
that was not the fact; and every 6,800 of the popula¬ 
tion of the union could be provided with one news¬ 
paper and one magazine. Daily papers then pub¬ 
lished amounted to 574; tri-weeklies, to 107; semi¬ 
weeklies, to 115; weeklies, to 4,295; semi-monthlies, 
to 95; monthlies, to 622; bi-monthlies, to 13 ; and 
quarterlies, to 49. The vast majority of all the sev¬ 
eral issues discussed the political issues of the day, 
taking sides, the actual number being 4,333; nearly 
one hundred make a speciality of agriculture ; over 
eighty are devoted to benevolent and secret organiza¬ 
tions; 142 are commercial and financial organs; over 
500 are illustrated papers, more or less devoted to lit¬ 
erary culture; over 400 are religious; 207 are techni¬ 
cal and professional; 6 are sporting publications, and 
79 contained advertisements onl}^ It will be seen 
that a wide range of tastes must be consulted in the 
successful management of so many publications. 

VIII. GOVERN3IENT. 

1 . — A Commonwealth of Kepublican Common¬ 
wealths is the nearest approah to a brief description of 
the federal government of the United States ; democracy 
in its broadest sense, the rule of the people, being the 
ba.ses of the superstructure. Although the Declara¬ 
tion of Independence only dates from July 4, 1776, 
the government under which we now live had been 
informally begun in May, 1775, when a congress 
assembled in Philadelphia to consider and take action 
upon the oppressive policy that had been inauguated 


UNITED STATES. 


57 


by Great Britain. The will of the colonists had 
already been pronounced in favor of home rule and 
against arbitrary levies and exactions by the British 
Parliament, although there were hopes that the repre¬ 
sentations made and to be made by the agent of the 
colonies would result in a peaceful accommodation 
of all difficulties. The foolish obstinacy of King 
George III proved all such hopes fallacious, and the 
war of independence which followed the world famous 
declaration vindicated the rights of the people to erect 
on these shores the free states which now afford refuge 
; against tyranny to all mankind. The Articles of Con¬ 
federation were agreed to November 15, 1777, but a 
delay of more than three years elapsed before the 
states unanimously accorded their approval of the 
action taken by congress. There was a fudamental 
error in the articles, as the federal power was not 
armed with authority to enforce its decrees whenever 
the states, or any one of them, in their sovereign 
; capacity assumed to be inherent in all relations should 
I refuse obedience. As against individuals, each com¬ 
monwealth had power within its own dominion, but 
I: the same rule did not apply with like rigor in the 
larger commonwealth in which sovereign states be¬ 
came individuals. This defect had to be amended, in 
that union and strength should be realized, as other¬ 
wise the confederation must be little other than a rope 
of sand, unless under unfavorable circumstances, the 
arm of military force, invoked to uphold federal 
authority, might have changed the wdiole fabric into 
a despotism wielded by an unscrupulous ruler for a 
time. So much had been suffered from authority, 
that the first essay towards self government erred on 
the side of weakening the central focus to an extent 
inconsistent with the common safety. To remedy 
this cardinal mistake, a convention assembled in Phil¬ 
adelphia in May, 1787, in which all the states except 
Eh ode Island were represented by delegates, and after 
several months of careful consideration, the articles 




58 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

were revised and amended, subject to the approval 
of the several states. The amendments then jnade 
brought into operation the constitution of the United 
States which is now in force. Every state in due 
course convened by delegates to consider the amend¬ 
ments submitted, and more than twelve months passed 
before the changes received the ratification of so many 
states as sufficed to sustain the amendments, and very 
nearly three years passed before unanimous ratifica¬ 
tion had been accorded, giving to the work of the 
convention of 1787, the force of law throughout the 
union. The alterations thus agreed to were in every 
sense beneficent. 

2. — As originally framed, the Constitution con¬ 
tained seven articles, which determined the relations 
of the federal government to the governments of the 
several states, and each to the other, but it was thought 
unnecessary or inexpedient at first to deal with the rights 
of individuals in the several states under the general 
articles named. Amendments from one to fifteen 
have since been found necessary at different epochs, 
nearly all of which have aimed in a greater or less 
degree at the definition of personal rights and the pro¬ 
tection of individuals or classes. According to the 
constitution, the government is made up of three 
branches: the Legislative, the Judiciary and the Execu¬ 
tive. 

3. — The Legislative Branch. This power is 
vested in Congress, and the limitations are broadly 
stated thus in the constitution : “ The power to make 
all laws necessary and proper for carrying into execu¬ 
tion all powers vested in the government or in any 
department or officer thereof,” The powers thus 
exercised are the levying and collection of taxes and 
duties with due regard to equality and uniformity 
throughout the United States; the procurement of loans 
on the credit of the union whenever necessary ; the reg¬ 
ulation of commerce between the several states and 
foreign nations; the establishment of uniform laws as 



UNITED STATES. 


59 


to naturalization applicable to all the states; placing 
the laws as to bankruptcy on a similarly stable basis ; 
coining money and establishing standards of weight 
and measure; establishing postoflices and roads for 
the conveyance of mails; declaring war and granting 
letters oi marque against any power against which 
war shall have been declared; to raise and maintain 
armies and a navy, and to establish laws for their 
proper government; to provide, as necessity may 
arise, for organizing, armament and disciplining the 
militia, and to govern such portions thereof as may be 
called into the service of the United States ; besides 
which the general government exercises an exclusive 
power and legislative control over the district in 
which the seat of government is located, and over 
such places and properties as the general government 
may acquire by purchase or otherwise for the erection 
of dock yards, arsenals and forts. 

4. — The powers of Congress are limited by consti¬ 
tutional restrictions which may be thus briefly stated: 
The privilege of habeas corpus^ which secures the pri¬ 
vate citizen against arbitary imprisonment without ex¬ 
amination and trial before the constituted authorities 
shall not be suspended unless under extreme cir¬ 
cumstances, when the public safety may seem to de¬ 
mand such action in times of rebellion, or in case of 
invasion ; Congress cannot pass a bill of attainder, 
nor any ex post facto law ; nor levy a capitation or other 
direct tax unless the same be proportioned to the enu¬ 
meration by the ofHcial census then in force; no pref¬ 
erence can be given by Congress to the port or ports 
of one state over the port or ports of any other 
state in the Union, nor can vessels trading between 
the different states be made to pay duties as between 
those states; Congress cannot draw money from the 
treasury otherwise than by acts of appropriation ac¬ 
cording to the forms prescribed bylaw; nor can any 
law be made having for its purpose the establishment 
of one form of religion, or the prohibition of the exer- 






60 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


cise ot any religion, or the abridgment of free speech, 
or the limitation of the freedom of the press, or to 
restrict the right of the people to assemble peaceably 
to petition the government for the redress of grievances; 
Congress may not question the validity of the public 
debt, duly authorized by law, and under that head 
comes also the payment of pensions and bounties prom¬ 
ised by the general government; besides which several 
limitations, neither the United States collectively nor 
any state shall pay any debt incurred to aid an insur¬ 
rection or rebellion against the general authority, nor 
any elaim for the loss of a slave or slaves, or for his 
or their emancipation. 

5. — The Senate is one house of the two that com¬ 
pose Congress, and it is formed by the election of two 
Senators for each state, who are chosen for terms of 
six years by the state legislatures. A Senator must 
have attained the age of thirty years, and have been a 
citizen of the United States at least nine 3 ^ears at the 
time of his being chosen ; he must be a resident in the 
state for which he is selected to serve. The sole power 
to try impeachments is vested in the Senate, which, 
when sitting in the discharge of that function, is under 
oath in the same manner as any other court of justice, 
being in that respect the highest court in the land. 
Should the President be tried, then the Chief Justice 
of the United States must be the presiding officer on 
that occasion. The power to ratify and to reject any 
and all treaties with foreign powers is vested in the 
Senate, and the concurrence of two-thirds of all the 
Senators present is necessary to authorize the Presi¬ 
dent to make a treaty. The appointments made by 
the Chief Executive are subject to the advice and con¬ 
sent of the Senate. Bills for the purpose of raising 
revenue cannot be originated in the Senate, but when 
any.such bill shall have come into the possession of 
the Senate, it may concur therein, or propose any 
amendments. By virtue of his office, the Vice Presi¬ 
dent of the United States is president of the Senate, 



UNITED STATES. 


61 


and in his absence the Senate shall elect a temporary 
presiding officer. The Senate also appoints a secre¬ 
tary to record its proceedings, a sergeant at arms to 
carry out the wiU of the body, and to arrest offenders, 
and a doorkeeper to prevent unlawful intrusion upon 
its deliberations. 

— The House of Eepresentatives is the second 
body, and it has powers coordinate in most respects 
with the Senate. Its members are chosen by the direct 
vote of the people, in the several states, eveiy second 
year, acording to the population in each state, as set 
forth in the census last obtained. The whole number 
of represenatives to which a state is entitled being de¬ 
termined by Congress after each decade shall have ex¬ 
pired, the local distribution of the representatives de¬ 
volves upon the several states. A candidate to be 
eligible for election must have attained the age of 
twenty-five _years, and must be a citizen and a resident 
in the state for which he is elected. The house must 
choose its own speaker, clerk, sergeant at arms, door¬ 
keeper, and other olficers. In this House is vested 
the exclusive right to originate bills having for their 
object the levy of a tax or duties; the power of the 
purse is thus held by the representatives of the people. 
Legislative and advisory duties properly devolve upon 
Congress, the judicial and executive functions are else¬ 
where imposed, but as we have seen, one chamber may 
be constituted a High Court for the trial of offenders 
against the United States, under the process of im¬ 
peachment; a power seldom called into requisition. 

7,— The Judicial Branch. This power consists 
of the Supreme Court and such inferior courts as Con¬ 
gress may from time to time ordain and appoint. All 
cases of law and equity arising under the constitution, 
under the laws of the United States, and under treaties 
made by the authority of the United States, come under 
the jurisdiction of this branch, as also all cases which af¬ 
fect ambassadors or other public ministers and consuls ; 
cases of maritime jurisdiction and admiralty causes 





62 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


generally pertain to the Supreme Court, and all con¬ 
troversies to which the United States may become a 
party ; questions of law between two or more states, 
or between citizens of different states, or between citi¬ 
zens of the same state who may claim lands under 
grants from other states, or as between a citizen and 
the state in which he resides, or any foreign state. 

8 . — Where ambassadors or other public ministers 
and consuls are affected, and in any case in which the 
state may be a party, the Supreme Court may exercise 
original jurisdiction ; but in other cases such as have 
been specified, the court has appellate jurisdiction only, 
both as to fact and law, subject to such exceptions as 
may be made by Congress. 

9 . —The Supreme Court is, as its name implies, 
the highest judicial tribunal in the United States. The 
court is composed of a Chief Justice and eight Asso¬ 
ciate Justices, who hold their offices for life or during 
good behavior. The Chief Justice presides in his 
court and regulates the order in which business shall 
be transacted, controlling the docket and assigning to 
the Associate Justices the cases in which they shall 
prepare opinions. 

10. — There are nine Judicial Circuits in the United 
States, and a Circuit Court must be held twice every 
year in each state within the circuit, by a justice of the 
Supreme Court duly assigned to that duty, and by the 
District Judge of the state or district in which said 
court is held. 

11 . — Original and appellate jurisdiction are alike 
vested in the Circuit Courts, which have concurrent 
jurisdiction with the state courts when the matter in 
dispute exceeds in money value $500, and the United 
States is a plaintiff, or where an alien is a party, or 
where the controversy arises between citizens of differ¬ 
ent states. In all cases of crime against the United 
States, such courts have exclusive jurisdiction, unless 
the law expressly confers the power upon other courts. 
In all admiralty cases, and in most of the cases arising 




UNITED S^rATES. 


63 


UDcler the custom laws and in bankruptcy, the district 
courts have original jurisdiction. 

; 12 , — Claims against the government prior to the 

^year 1856 could only be dealt with by petition to Con- 
‘gress, and the process was so unsatisfactory that the 
court of claims was established at the date mentioned, 
and under its jurisdiction come all questions as to 
demands upon the government which the regular de¬ 
partments refuse or fail to satisfy. The court consists 
of hve Judges appointed by the President, subject to 
the advice and consent of the senate, and they hold 
their places like the Justices of the Supreme Court, for 
life or during good behavior. Before this court comes 
or may come every claim founded upon a law of Con¬ 
gress, or arising out of the regulations of an executive 
department, or under contracts implied or expressed, 
and of counterclaims by the government. In all mat¬ 
ters and suits the Attorney General and his two assist¬ 
ants and the Solicitor General represent the govern¬ 
ment. The advantage of such modes of investigation 
for the public in general over Congressional manipu¬ 
lation must be immediately visible. 

13. — The Executive. This power is vested in 
the President, who is chosen by electors from the sev¬ 
eral states, and his term of office is four years. Every 
state is entitled to as many electors as it has senators 

I and representatives in Congress. The Vice President 
I who is ex-officio President of the senate, and who in 
certain events may become President of the United 
States, is chosen in a similar manner at the same time 
with the President. dTe Chief Executive and the 
Vice President must be native born citizens of the 
i United States, residing within the states fourteen years, 
j and the Constitution further demands that they shall 
j have attained the age of thirty-five years. 

14. — The President is Commander-in-chief of the 
armies and navy of the United States, and of the mili¬ 
tia forces of the several states whenever such forces 
are called into the general service. The pardoning 




64 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


power of the President suffices in all offenses against 
the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 
The President lias power to make treaties with foreign 
powers, by and with the advice and consent of the 
senate, provided that two-thirds of the number of sen¬ 
ators present when such question may arise concur in 
such action. Subject to similar advice and consent, 
the President nominates all the officers of government: 
ambassadors, public ministers, consuls, justices of the 
Supreme Court, and all executive officials, except such 
as are expressly provided for otherwise by the Consti¬ 
tution. The President receives the Ministers from 
foreign powers, and it devolves upon him to grant the 
exequator to foreign Consuls. The President commu¬ 
nicates by message with Congress at the opening of 
every session, setting forth the condition of the coun¬ 
try, and recommending such action as he may deem 
expedient. 

15. — The power to veto a bill or measure is not ab¬ 
solute in the bands of the President. Every order, 
vote or bill, in which the two houses of Congress may 
have concurred, except only a resolution to adjourn, 
must be presented to the President for his approval 
and signature. Should that form be complied with 
the bill becomes law, but the power of the veto may 
be exerted bv returning the measure unsigned to the 
house in which it originated, with a statement in writ¬ 
ing of the President’s objections, and the reasons why 
he thinks it should not become law. That is the ex¬ 
tent of his authority in that direction ; as in the event 
of Congress reaffirming the bill by a two-thirds major¬ 
ity, it becomes an act and is law thenceforth. The 
constitution holds the President responsible for the 
faithful execution of the laws, and in the discharge of 
his onerous duties he is assisted by the highest execu¬ 
tive officers, who compose his Cabinet. The Secretary 
of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary 
of War, the Secretary of the Navy, the Secretary of 
the Interior, the Postmaster General and the Attorney 


UNITED STATES. 


65 


General constitute the Cabinet. They are the consti¬ 
tutional advisers of the President on questions of policy, 
and as to the executive duties of the federal govern¬ 
ment without as well as within their several depart¬ 
ments. The meetings of the Cabinet may be held at 
any time most convenient to the President and mem¬ 
bers ; but usually the Cabinet assembles twice in every 
week for consultation. The President is not bound by 
the advice that may be offered to him. 

16. — The Department of State. This branch 
of the executive power was created by a law passed in 
July 1789, and next to the President the Secretary of 
State is’the highest officer in the executive. The for¬ 
eign office in the several states in Europe corresponds 
with the functions of this department, and the Secre¬ 
tary of State is, from their point of view, our minister 
of foreign affairs. He holds intercourse with duly 
accredited ambassadors and ministers from foreign 
governments, and conducts all official correspondence 
with them; instructions for our own ministers and 
consuls abroad are prepared and issued by him; and 
all regulations as to the dispatch and proper record of 
their business are subject to his control. They must 
report through him, and he submits to Congress all 
communications of value, and whatever information 
can be collected as to commercial affairs through min¬ 
isters and consuls, or by any other means. The acts 
of Congress, when duly enrolled, after they have be¬ 
come law, must be promulgated by the Secretary of 
State. When civil commissions have been signed by 
the President, the Secretary of State must append 
thereto the seal of the United States. Two assistant 
secretaries perform such duties as he may prescribe for 
them in the fuirillment of the law. He has also under 
his immediate control the Disbursing Agent, who has 
charge of the funds and accounts of the department; 
the Translator, who translates such foreign documents 
as may be required by the department; the Clerk of 
Appointments and Commissions, whose duty it is to 
5 




COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


CG 

iiiako out com missions and keep tlicir record, as well 
as nominations to the Senate. exe(;ualors, and all such 
documents; the charge of the department library is 
vested in this ollicer. The Clerk of Kolls and Ar¬ 
chives is one of the staff, properly speaking, of the Sec¬ 
retary of State. He has charge of the enrolled acts of 
Congress, as they come from the President, and it is 
his duty to prepare copies of such acts, as well as to 
superintend their jiublication, together with all treaties, 
ddiis ollicer has charge of treaties with the Indian 
tribes. Last of the principal officers in the staff of the 
Secretary of State is the Clerk of Authentication, who 
has cusUhIv of the seals of the Ignited States and of 
the departmeiU, and whose duty it is to certif\’ and 
authenticate documents, receive official fees, and ren¬ 
der a due account tliereof. and keep a record of all 
letters, except those which belong to the consulai' and 
diplomatic service. 

17. — The Piplomatic Service, as we have seen, is 
camtrolled through the department of the Secretary of 
State. Piphunatic Agents rank as Envoys Extraor¬ 
dinary and Ministers Plenipotentiary to England, Ger¬ 
many, France, Kussia. Spain, Austria, Italy, China, 
M exieo, Prazil, Chili and Peru. ]S’ext to these come 
Ministers Pesident, such as represent the LInited States 
in Pen mark, Sweden and Norway, the Netherlands, 
Pelgium, Portugal, Switzerland, the Hawaiian Islands, 
llayti. Turkey, Greece, Japan, Nicaragua, Costa Eica, 
Guatemala, Honduras. Salvador. New Granada, Vene¬ 
zuela, Ecuador, the Argentine Eepublic, Bolivia, Par¬ 
aguay, Uruguay, and Liberia. Where a Minister 
Plenipotentiary or a Minister Resident represents the 
United States. Secretaries of Legation are also author- 
ized, and for London and Paris there are also assistant 
secretaries. Consuls reside in foreign countries as dulv’ 
autliorized public agents, charged to watch over the 
commercial interests of citizens. Such officers are 
usually located in important cities and at seaports. 
There are about seventy-five such agents customarily 
engaged in the line of duty indicated. 


rXITKI) STATES. 


67 


1 — "riiE TiiEASUiiY ])Ki’A RTMEXT. Tliis branch 

of the public service is presided over by the Secretary 
of the Treasury, whose duties embrace*an eflicient su- 
])ervision of all fiscal affairs and the financial o[)era- 
tions of the government, as well as the execution of 
laws affecting navigation and commerce, the due sur¬ 
vey of the coast in the interests of public safety, and 
the establishment and control of lighthouses wherever 
necessary; the maintenance of the Marine Hospital 
of the Uuited States, and the construction and main¬ 
tenance of public buildings for custom houses and 
other purposes. There are several bureaus in the de- 
j)artment, under re.-ponsible chiefs, who are subordin¬ 
ate to the Secretary. 

1 f). — The Subordinate Chiefs of the several bureaus 
in the department of the treasury are the First Control¬ 
ler, who prescribes the modes in which the accounts of 
the civil service, the diplomatic service, and the public 
lands, shall be kept and rendered; the Second Controller 
lias under his charge the accounts of the army and navy 
and the Indian Bureau. There are six auditors in the 
department whose business it is to hold the scales 
fairly between the United States and individuals. In 
the hands of the first are placed the accounts of the. 
customs and the revenue, together with the appropria¬ 
tions and expenditures of the civil list; and it is his^ 
duty to report the balances arrived at, to the First Con¬ 
troller and to the Commissioner of Customs. The sec¬ 
ond takes charge of all accounts in relation to the pay 
and clothing and recruiting of the army, as well as- 
those in connection with the Indian Department. This 
officer reports his balances to the Second Controller. 
The third on the auditing staff has for his supervision, 
all accounts for army subsistence, for fortifications, for 
the support of the military academy at AVest Point, 
for the making and maintenance of military roads, for 
the quartermaster department, for pensions, claims for 
military services which accrued previous to 1861, and 
for horses and other property lost in the military ser- 



68 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


vice; reporting to the Second Controller. The accounts 
of the Navy Department are audited by the fourth on 
the staff, and the Fifth Auditor has charge of all ac¬ 
counts for the diplomatic and consular services under 
the direction of the Secretary of State. The Sixth Aud¬ 
itor adjusts the accounts of the Post Office Department, 
and unless an appeal is made to the first collector 
within one year, his decisions are final. Where legal 
steps are necessary to compel the prompt payment of 
moneys due to the department, it is the duty of this 
officer to give direction. Lands and other properties 
assigned to the postal department in satisfaction of 
debts are under the control of the Sixth Auditor. 

20. — The Commissioner of Customs prescribes the 
methods assumed to be most convenient and safe for 
preserving the records of moneys received from cus¬ 
toms and revenue, as well as all disbursements in that 
connection, and for the building and maintenance of 
custom houses. The Treasurer is the custodian of 
the moneys of the United States, disbursing the 
sums called for by warrants under the hand of the 
Secretary of the Treasury, countersigned by the First 
Controller; and by warrants under the hand of the Post¬ 
master General, countersigned by the Sixth Auditor. 
Accounts of public receipts and disbursements are 
kept by the Eegister who is the recipient of the returns 
of commerce and navigation, and who also, for pur¬ 
poses of registration, receives from the First Controller 
and the Commissioner of Customs the accounts and 
vouchers adjusted by them. The Solicitor has it in 
his charge to superintend all civil writs commenced by 
the United States, unless proceedings have been origi¬ 
nated by the Post Office Department; and in fulfill¬ 
ment of his duty he procures from each term of the 
United States courts, a return showing the progress of 
each suit. With the exception of such lands as may 
be assigned to the Post Office Department, and the care 
:and custody of which belong to the Sixth Auditor, the 
Solicitor has charge of all land and property assigned 


UNITED STATES. 


69 


to the United States in satisfaction of demands, having 
power to sell or in any other way dispose of the same 
for the benefit of the United States. The Commis¬ 
sioner of Internal Kevenue supervises the collection of 
the direct taxes and all matters connected with the 
tax laws. There are no less than three thousand offi¬ 
cers employed by the Treasury Department, residing in 
Washington. The Light-house Board controls the 
erection and repair of'light houses, light vessels, buoys 
and beacons; the coast being divided into thirteen 
light-house districts. The Secretary of the Treasury is 
president of the board by virtue of his office, and is 
responsible for the administration of its affairs. The 
United States coast survey forms part of the treasury 
department, and it has now been in progress forty-four 
years, having been established in 1832 to survey the 
coasts and harbors, and prepare maps and charts on 
which absolute reliance can be placed. The opera¬ 
tions of this bureau are carried on by a superintending 
officer and a staff of assistants comprising civilians and 
officers of the army and navy, qualified for such oner¬ 
ous scientific labors. 

21. — There are sixty-two Collectors of Customs ap¬ 
pointed by the President, subject to the usual advice 
and consent, to superintend the collection of customs 
in the sixty-two districts into which the seaboard of 
the United States is divided. The collectors have for 
their duty, in each of their several districts, to issue 
clearances, without which vessels cannot sail from the 
Unite^l States; to certify the correctness of manifests 
and bills of lading; to take account of all vessels 
built within their area of dut}^, and to make accurate re¬ 
turns of all imports and exports to the Register of the 
Treasury. Upon the arrival of foreign vessels the col¬ 
lector receives the manifest from each officer in charge, 
and, on that basis, computes the duties to be paid be¬ 
fore the goods named therein can be landed. Clerks, 
appraisers, weighers, gaugers and inspectors are em¬ 
ployed to assist the collector in each district ac- 



70 


COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


cording to the onerousness of the duties devolving 
■upon him. The import duties collected in this way in 
the year which ended July 1, 1872, amounted to 
$216,370,286. For the larger ports naval officers are 
appointed, who countersign all permits, clearances, 
certificates and other documents which are proper to 
be granted by the collectors, examining also and certi¬ 
fying, when correct, the Collector’s accounts of receipts 
and disbursements. Surve 3 'Ors are stationed onl}' at 
the larger ports, having for their task the superintend¬ 
ence of inspectors, weighers, gaugers and others, and 
to report to the collectors every case of failure to per¬ 
form a public duty on the part of the officers superin¬ 
tended. Besides the collectors of customs thus de¬ 
scribed, the United States is divided into internal 
revenue districts, with a collector in each, making as¬ 
sessments and collecting the direct taxes. 

22. — The Principal Mint is at Philadelphia; but 
there are branches in San Francisco, in Denver City 
and elsewhere. There is an assay office in the city of 
New York in which gold and silver in bullion, coins, 
or gold dust can be refined and assayed. Coining 
money is performed under regulations prescribed b\^ 
the Secretary of the Treasury to secure the public and 
the government against fraud. One pound of gold is 
the assumed equivalent of fifteen pounds of silver, 
and, in the process of coinage, one tenth of alloy is 
added to both metals; gold being alloyed with silver 
and copper in equal parts, and silver with copper only. 
The gold coins of the United States are, the double 
eagle, worth $20 and weighing 516 grains, the eagle, 
half eagle, quarter eagle and the dollar, diminishing 
in value and weight, until the gold coin worth one 
dollar weighs 2o|- grains. The silver coins are, the 
dollar, weighing 412^ grains, and the several divisions 
of the dollar down to the half dime, worth five cents, 
weighing 20f grains. There is also a silver three cent 
piece weighing 12f grains. There are two coins in 
nickel, value five and three cents respectively, and two 








UNITED STATES. 


71 


in copper, value one and two cents, the latter weighing 
96 grains. 

— The Superintendent of Coast Surveys is, by 
virtue of his ofliee. Superintendent of Weights and 
Measures. Avoirdupois weight is the standard for all 
articles except gold, silver and precious stones. The 
I pound avoirdupois is divided into sixteen ounces and 
I each ounce into sixteen drachms. The hundred 
weight is one hundred pounds avoirdupois, and the 
ton two thousand pounds or twenty hundred weight. 
Troy weight is the standard for the excepted articles— 
gold, silver and the precious stones; the pound troy 
being divided into twelve ounces, the ounce into twen¬ 
ty pennyweights and the pennyweights into twen¬ 
ty-four grains. In liquid measures the gallon is the 
unit. The gallon consists of four quarts, the quart of 
two pints, and the pint of four gills. In dry measures, 
the unit is the bushel, which is 18i inches in diameter 
by 8 inches deep, and contains 2,lu0f cubic inches. 
One bushel contains four pecks, one peck eight quarts, 
and one quart two pints. The standard for long meas¬ 
ure is a brass scale 82 inches in length, made in Lon¬ 
don for the coast survey office in Washington, where 
it is preserved. This standard differs very slightly 
from the English standard, the variation being only 
an accident originally, and so slight as to become no¬ 
ticeable only in very great measurements. 

24-, — Notwithstanding the terrible drain upon the 
resources of the country, entailed by the Great Rebel¬ 
lion, the finances of the United States are in good 
condition. In the year 1872, the receipts exceeded the 
expenditures by more than $91,000,000. The balance 
remaining in the treasury was $106,000,000 within a 
a small amount, and nearly $107,000,000 was devoted 
to the reduction of the national debt. Expenditures 
have considerably decreased since the termination of 
the war, and the increasing activity of the whole pop¬ 
ulation in the arts of peace, assists materially to im¬ 
prove the tone of society. Reduced import duties 



72 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


have been found much more productive of revenue 
than the very high rates which once prevailed, but 
even now it is known that the practice of smuggling 
is carried on to a demoralizing extent among persons 
and classes that should offer a better example to the 
bulk of society. In spite of such drawbacks the 
liabilities of the country are l)eing steadily decreased, 
and statesmen are already promising a speedy resump¬ 
tion of specie payments. 

25. — This nation has exhibited a wonderful recu¬ 
perative capacity in carrying the burdens of debt. 
When the national finances were intrusted to Alexan¬ 
der Hamilton after the conclusion of the war for In¬ 
dependence, the consolidated debt was $125,000,000, 
resting upon a population of less than four millions, 
scattered over a wide area of country in which science, 
arts and manufactures were yet in their infancy, and 
in which agriculture and mechanic arts were rude in 
the extreme. Spite of these drawbacks the interest 
was provided for with commendable punctuality, and 
in the year 1812, $80,000,000 of the principal amount 
had been liquidated. The war which then ensued 
with Great Britain added $30,000,000 to the aggregate, 
but before the year 1836 every cent of that amount 
had been paid with all the interest accruing, and in 
that year a surplus of $36,000,000 remained in the 
Treasury. When the ^fexican War commenced our 
national debt was only $16,750,000, but in the year 
1853 it had increased to $67,341,000, still so great was 
the recuperative energy of our population that within 
one year the sum total was brought down to $47,000.- 
000, and in 1857 it had fallen to $29,000,000. The 
income of the country fell off during the term of Mr. 
Buchanan’s administration so that on the first da}^ of 
July, I860, our indebtedness stood at $64,769,703, and 
from that time onward, the enormous expenditure 
necessary for the successful prosecution of the civil 
war showed a continuous increase until 1867. The 
debt on the 1st of July, 1861, was $90,867,829, and in 







UNITED STATES. 


73 


the following year it had reached $514,211,372, stead¬ 
ily advancing in the succeeding years to $1,098,793,- 
, 181; $1,740,690,489 ; $2,682,593,026; $2,783,426,879. 

I From that time a gradual decrease commenced as 
; July 1, 1867, and the succeeding years to 1872 exhib¬ 
ited the following totals: $2,6’92.199.215; $2,636,- 
I 320,964; $2,489,002,480; $2,386,358,599; $2,292,- 
j 030,835, and $2,191,486,343. The administration of 
President Grant has been fortunate for the country, in- 
I asmuch as the nation was already emerging from all 
its great troubles before his acceptance of office, and 
his policy has steadily tended toward the realization of 
the lines of policy demanded by the times and the 
people. The total debt, less cash in the Treasury in 
October, 1872, amounted to onlj’- $2,166,994,677, and 
since that date the diminution has been not less marked. 

20. — The Department of the Interior. This 
branch of the public service was established in 1849, 
and the Secretary to whom its management is entrust¬ 
ed carries a great responsibility, as it involves the 
supervision of the General Land Office, the Pension 
Bureau, the Indian Office, the Bureau of Education, 
i the Patent Office, and the Department of Agriculture; 

I either of which might well task the powers of a great 
administrative genius to procure the best results possi¬ 
ble for the community. Besides all these duties. 
United States Marshals and Attorneys are part of his 
domain, and the duty of collecting the census of the 
United States every decade also devolves upon the 
Department of the Interior. Of course all these sev¬ 
eral duties belong in an executive sense to the chiefs 
of the different bureaus, to which they have been de- 
partmentally allotted, but notwithstanding the respon¬ 
sibilities of the Secretary of the Interior are very 
great. 

27. ^ The General Land Office is under the control 
of a commissioner, whose duty it is to procure the 
timely survey of public lands and to arrange' for their 
sale. The public domain alienated in the year ending 






74 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


June 30, 1872, showed an aggregate of cash sales for 
1,370,320 acres; taken for -homesteads, 4,671,332; 
granted to railroads, 3,554,887; located with military 
land warrants, 389,460; located with college scrip, 
693,613; granted to wagon roads, 465,347; approved 
to states as swamps, 714,215; and located with Indian 
scrip, 5,760; dealing with a gross total of 11,864,934 
acres. The increase of alienation over the year imme¬ 
diately preceding was nearly 1,100,000 acres, and the 
cash receipts under the several heads amounted to 
$3,218,100. The work of surveying never ceases, the 
quantity thus made ready for alienation during the 
year named having been 22.016,608 acres. There 
were then ready for sale, 583.364,780 acres and an un¬ 
surveyed area of 1,251,633,620 acres, over which the 
spread of population will give an increase of value 
every year. The United States and territories are di¬ 
vided into 82 land districts, in which there are public 
lands yet waiting selection and sale. Ohio, Illinois 
and Indiana have each one land district; Missouri has 
three; and so has Alabama; Mis.sissippi has only 
one; Louisiana has two; Michigan, five; Arkansas, 
four; Florida, one; Iowa, four; Montana, Utah and 
Arizona, one each; Wisconsin, six ; California, nine; 
Nevada, four; Minnesota, seven; Oregon, three; Kan¬ 
sas, five; Washington Territory, three; Nebraska, 
five; New Mexico, one; Dakota, three; Colorado, 
four; Idaho, two; and Wyoming, one; the operations 
of every district coming under the review of the com¬ 
missioner. 

28. — The Commissioner of Pensions examines and 
adjudicates upon all claims which arise under the sev¬ 
eral laws of congress which have at any time granted 
bounty land or pensions for naval or military services 
in the revolutionary and in subsequent wars. When 
the returns were compiled from which we now quote, 
in June, 1872, there were in the books of this depart¬ 
ment the names of 95,405 military invalid pensioners, 
and of 113,518 widows, orphans and dependents of 





UNITED STATES. 


75 


soldiers, receiving a total of $23,142,633, an average 
of but about $110.75 per head; but a contribution 
which marks the sense entertained by the nation of 
the services rendered to the country by brave, self-sac¬ 
rificing men. There were at the same” time 3,179 pen¬ 
sioners of all ranks, claiming for naval services and 
losses, and receiving annually $405,537, or an average 
of nearly $125 per head. There is no other form of 
outlay so well warranted as that which recognizes the 
debt of the nation to its brave defenders. 

29. — The Commissioner of the Indian Office is re¬ 
sponsible to the Secretary of the Interior for the proper 
direction of all business relating to Indian affairs. In 
all treaties with the tribes this officer represents the 
government, and the distribution of annuities and 
presents, on behalf of the general government, is car¬ 
ried on under his supervision. Necessarily, where so 
wide an area of country has to be traversed by agents, 
and where men not specially qualified for administra¬ 
tion occasionally reach offices in which there are in¬ 
ducements to peculate on their own account, or to 
wink at such operations in others, it cannot fail to be 
found occasionally that presents intended for the In¬ 
dians never reach their destination ; but the system of 
check and counter check, which is being gradually 
brought into operation, will eventually render such 
fraudulent practices impossible. The department is 
•usually credited with an earnest desire to carry out a 
difficult line of duty in the manner most conformable 
to honor and justice. The commissioner is assisted 
by fourteen superintendents, who are located at differ¬ 
ent points in the west, where they are easy of access 
to the Indians, should causes of complaint arise; and, 
besides these, there are, under their supervision in 
some degree, a number of Indian Agents owing their 
appointments to the President, whose express duty it 
is to protect the Indians among whom they reside. 
Another Commissioner is charged with the responsi¬ 
bilities of the Patent Office, having for his duty the 



76 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


performance of all acts touching the grant and issue 
of letters patent for discoveries, inventions and im 
provements. Under him there is quite a corps of ex¬ 
aminers and assistants, whose duty it is, in the inter¬ 
ests of the public, to aid all genuine inventors to the 
realization of their demands for protection, and at the 
same time to prevent the issue of patents when the 
pretended or real improvement may have been pat¬ 
ented before, or may be too small to warrant any con¬ 
cession. The examiners report in writing to the Com¬ 
missioner upon every application, and these docu¬ 
ments, subject to his revision if necessary, form the 
basis for his action in the premises. The Patent Office 
Official Gazette, issued monthly by this bureau, keeps 
the world of invention fully advised as to all applica¬ 
tions and decisions in the department as touching their 
special interests, and as to all the judicial decisions 
which affect the operation of patent laws, together 
with such changes of practice as may from time to 
time be adopted. The public and other inventors 
learn from the publication all necessary particulars as 
to extensions sought by old patentees, and as to the 
applications of others, whose specifications and illus¬ 
trations are likewise given when their claims have 
progressed to the point to require such action. During 
the year which ended June 30, 1872, there were 13,626 
patents granted, and 233 extensions of old patents, the 
total number of applications being, for the first patent, 
19,587, and for extensions, 28-4. There were, during 
the same year, 556 certificates granted on the registry 
of trade marks, the number of applications being 589, 
so that, even in such matters, some degree of scrutiny 
is found necessary to prevent unjust and possibly 
fraudulent imitations. The number of caveats filed 
during the year amounted to 3.100, that branch of ac¬ 
tion being the index of outside activit}’ as to the af¬ 
fairs of the bureau. The Patent Office is something 
more than self-supporting, as the fees during the year 
named amounted to $700,954, and the expenditures 





UNITED STATES. 


77 


only footed up about $323,557, leaving a margin of 
about $277,397, against which, however, must be 
charged the cost of running the bureau, no small item 
necessarily. 

30. — The Department of Agriculture has the ad¬ 
vantage of the services of a Commissioner and a com¬ 
petent staff, whose duty it is to collect, arrange and 
diffuse among the people most concerned valuable 
facts connected with farming and pastoral pursuits, 
and, in addition thereto, to obtain, propagate and dis¬ 
tribute new. and important plants and seeds which may 
be utilized in this community. Botanists, entomolo¬ 
gists and other scientific men are employed by the 
Commissioner, in addition to the staff of clerical as¬ 
sistants found necessary to carry on the operations of 
the department, and much good is undoubtedly being 
effected by the action of the Commissioner and his 
assistants. 

31. — The Bureau of Education employs only a 
Commissioner and three clerks, and there is but little 
administrative work falling upon this office, as every 
state has control of its own schools. The collection of 
facts and statistics showing the condition and pros¬ 
pects of education in the several states and territories, 
and to diffuse information wherever and whenever it 
may appear likely that, by such action, the interests 
of the school system may be furthered. The value of 
such a department cannot be questioned, as the scat¬ 
tered facts, which elsewhere might pass unnoticed, fall 
here under review among men whose special duty it 
is to generalize results and to demonstrate the value 
of training. 

— The Department of War. This branch 
of the general government dates from 1789, and is un¬ 
der the direction of the Secretar}^ of War, the Presi¬ 
dent of the United States, being, under the constitu¬ 
tion, comraander-in-chief of the army and navy. This 
department may be considered more particularly his 
own than any of the others named. The Secretary of 



78 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


War issues all commissions for raising and command¬ 
ing troops and directs their movements, being also 
charged to superintend their payment, clothing, stores, 
arms, ordnance and equipment, as well as all works of 
military engineering. These several duties are divid¬ 
ed among different bureaus, presided over by officers 
of considerable standing, and it is generally assumed 
that the department is efficiently managed. 

83. — The Headquarters of the Army is in the office 
of the Commanding General, and that office was in 
Washington until very recently, when a change was 
made to St. Louis, Mo. The General has charge of 
the discipline and distribution of troops, and all re¬ 
cruiting takes place under his direction. 

84. — The Adjutant General’s office keeps all records 
as to the 2 ')ersonnel of the army, such as, among other 
matter, the muster rolls, and all correspondence with 
the administrative departments goes through this 
bureau. The yearly returns of the army are received 
here, and all orders issuing from the Secretary of War 
or from the Commanding; General come through this 
office before publication. 

85. — The Quarter Master General provides quarters 
and transportation for troops, as also storage and trans¬ 
port for all army supplies, clothing, horses for cavalry 
service and for the artillery. This office has charge of 
barracks and of all national cemeteries. -Subsistence 
stores, including rations for troops and garrisons are 
the especial province of the Commissary General. 

8G. —The Office of Paymaster General controls all 
disbursements of pay to officers, soldiers and em¬ 
ployees connected with the army. The paymasters con¬ 
nected with the various commands report to this 
bureau. 

87. — The Ordnance Bureau is described by its ti¬ 
tle; armories, arsenals and ordnance stores all over the 
country are under its superintendence. 

38. — The Office of the Engineer is charged with 
the construction and maintenance of military defenses, 



UNITED STATES. 


79 


such as forts on the seaboard, etc., and the improve¬ 
ments of rivers and harbors as well as the care of the 
military academy at West Point are parts of the re¬ 
sponsibilities devolving upon the Engineer’s office. 
The Chief of Engineers who commands the Engineer 
Corps of the army, has the direction of this department, 
and its works are just as important during peace as in 
war times. 

— The Surgeon General controls sanitary regu¬ 
lations, and has the management of the military hospit¬ 
als, as well as of the sick and wounded. From this 
office the surgeons of the army receive their orders and 
assignments of duty, reporting to the Surgeon General. 

40. — Military Justice has a bureau which was 
founded in 1864, and its staff consists of a Judge Ad¬ 
vocate General, with the rank and pay of a brigadier 
general and an Assistant Judge Advocate ranking as 
a colonel of cavalry. This bureau has charge of the 
proceedings of all courts martial and courts of inquiry. 

41. — The Signal Bureau is under the direction of 
the commander of the Signal Corps, and to this office 
meteorological returns are made from all the signal 
stations throughout the country. “ Probabilities ” has 
here its head quarters as the forecasts as to weather are 
made in this bureau three times every day and trans¬ 
mitted by telegraph to all parts of the union. More 
than three-fourths of all the predictions arrived at by 
consideration of the universal system of reports have 
been verified for many years past, and further study 

I of wind currents will not fail to increase their accu¬ 
racy. No great storm has occurred along the seaboard 
of the United States for a long time without warning 
being thus afforded to the threatened areas. Among 
all the works of applied science, the operations of this 
office lake high rank, and the value of its work has 
frequently been realized in the saving of property and 
life. 

4‘^. — The Army is limited to thirty thousand men, 
by act of Congress, and the terra of enlistment is three 




80 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

years. The present organization consists of Cavalry, 
sixteen regiments, twelve companies in each ; Infantry, 
twenty-five regiments, ten companies in each ; Artil¬ 
lery, live regiments, and one battalion of Engineers, 
besides the West Point Cadets. The command was 
vested in 1871 in 1 General, 1 Lieutenant General, 
4 Major Generals, 16 Brigadier Generals, 68 Colonels, 
83 Lieutenant Colonels, 270 Majors, 533 Captains, and 
1,137 Lieutenants, first and second. 

43. — The Navy Department. This branch of 
the service is under the direction of a Secretary, who 
procures naval stores and materials, directs the con¬ 
struction, arrangement and the equipping of war ves¬ 
sels, and generally carries out the orders of the Presi¬ 
dent as to this arm of defense. Orders to commanders 
of squadrons and of vessels, and indeed to all officers 
of the Navy and the Marine Corps, come through this 
office. The several bureaus of the department are 
controlled by the Secretary, who is aided by an As¬ 
sistant Secretary acting under his orders. 

44. —The Bureau of Navy Yards and Docks has 
immediate direction of navy yards, wharves, docks, 
naval buildings, and of the Naval Asylum. The Bu¬ 
reau of Navigation controls and works the Astronom¬ 
ical Observatory near Washington, and the Hydro- 
graphic Office. From this bureau vessels of war are 
supplied with charts, maps, books and chronometers, 
the office being responsible for their correctness. The 
General Superintendent of the Naval Academy at 
Annapolis, Md., and the publication of the Nautical 
Almanac belong to this bureau. All ordnance and 
stores connected therewith, everything connected with 
naval armament, and the manufacture or purchase of 
cannon, guns, powder and shot, belong to the Bureau 
of Ordnance. Equipment and recruiting has a bureau 
which is charged to provide vessels with sails, anchors, 
and all the numerous etceteras demanded for the man¬ 
agement of war vessels. The manning of ships is one 
branch of the duty of this bureau. Construction and 


I 



eaADDOCB. flENEOiX genzeax wour^ 



6URRENDER OE LORD CORNWALLIS 


































































I 

I 


k 







UNITED STATES. 


81 


repair of vessels of war devolve upon a special bureau 
which has charge of the purchase of all necessary ma¬ 
terials. Steam Engineering, an entirely modern branch 
of the naval service, is committed to a bureau under 
the control of the Chief Engineer, who decides upon 
plans of construction, and superintends the building of 
marine steam engines. Provisions and clothing have 
a bureau which purchases under systems of tender, all 
clothing and provisions used in the naval service. 
Medicine and surgery are consigned to one bureau, 
which purchases and distributes medical stores, and 
generally has charge of the sick and wounded, as well 
as the control of the Marine Hospitals. The Navy in 
1872 consisted of 178 vessels, carrying 1,378 guns; of 
this number of v'essels 68 were steamers, carrying 929 
guns in all; 31 were sailing vessels, with 322 guns ; 
51 were iron-clads, with 127 guns; and there were 28 
tugs. The vessels then in commission numbered 45, 
and were armed with 462 guns, being distributed in 
the Naval Department under the orders of the Presi¬ 
dent. 

45. — The Post Office Department. This branch 
of the service is under the control of the Postmaster 
General, who has under him a very numerous staff, 
and is immediately assisted by three Assistant Post¬ 
masters General. 

46. — The First Assistant Postmaster General is re¬ 
sponsible for the working of the Appointment Office. 
The establishment and discontinuance of post offices 
devolves upon him, and the sites and names of such 
offices are also under his management, as well as the 
appointment and removal of postmasters and local 
agents, and their proper instruction as to the duties 
devolving upon officials of the department. The 
marking and rating stamps and letter balances issued 
to postmasters come from this office, and all blanks 
and stationery, proper to be used by the department, 
originate here. The office also has charge of the 
ocean mail steamship lines, and all international ar- 

6 





82 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


rangements with foreign powers. Some idea of the 
amount of business transacted the Post Office De¬ 
partment may be gathered from the fact that there 
were, in 1872, 31,863 post offices in the United States, 
and 2,452 were money order offices. The increase of 
offices during the preceding year had been 1,818, and 
a growth nearly as large is pretty general at all seasons. 
The letter and newspaper postage stamps issued during 
the year numbered 665,380,820, but of course some of 
the letters and parcels sent bore many stamps, so that 
the number of packages forwarded cannot be ascer¬ 
tained from that record. The department employs 
81,863 postmasters, 3,754 clerks, 5,544 contractors, 
1,442 carriers, 764 route agents, 642 railway postal 
clerks, 146 mail route messengers, 95 local agents, and 
59 special agents. Since 1872, the numbers have 
largely increased, but there were, at that date, in all 
44,655 officials in the service, including the 845 as¬ 
sistants and clerks employed by the Postmaster Gen¬ 
eral in Washington. The foreign letters sent in that 
year were 12,774,064, and the receipts from foreign 
countries made a total of 11,588,436. 

47.—The Second Assistant Postmaster General 
controls the Contract Office, and ,it is his duty to ar¬ 
range the mail service, contracting for the conveyance 
of the mails, and fixing the times for the arrival and 
departure of mails at all the points of distribution, as 
well as making regulations for the government of the 
domestic mail service. A weekly report of all con¬ 
tracts executed and orders affecting mail transporta¬ 
tion accounts goes from this office to the Auditor, as 
already noted. The duty of inspection is devolved 
upon a division of this ollice, in which the registers of 
arrivals and departures are examined, and all reports 
of mail failures, delinquencies of contractors and such 
incidents of irregularity are noted for report to the 
Postmaster General. This division also has it in 
charge to provide mail bags and secure the mail 
against depredations. There were, in 1872, no less 


UNITED STATES. 


83 


than 7,259 mail routes in the United States, with a 
total of 251,398 miles, of which 174,627 were traveled 
bj horse power, 18,860 by steamboat, and 57,911 by 
I railroad. The mail transportation for the year trav- 
I ersed 664,981,322 miles of road, and the increase in 
I that respect, as in all others, still proceeds. 

I 48. — The Thiid Assistant Postmaster General con¬ 
trols the Finance Odlce, supervising the financial 
affairs of the department so far as such business is not 
by law assigned to the Auditor, such as accounts with 
the draft offices and other depositories of the depart- 
( ment, the issue of warrants and drafts in payment of 
balances found to be due to mail contractors and other 
persons upon the report of the Auditor. Officers un¬ 
der order to deposit quarterly balances at points des¬ 
ignated by the office, and postmasters rendering ac¬ 
counts of their quarterly returns of postage stamps 
are under his supervision. The issue of postage 
I stamps and the control of the dead letter office belong 
to this office. The Postmaster General estimated that, 
i in the year 1873, the deficit to be supplied by con- 
; gressional appropriation upon the whole service of the 
j year would amount to $6,310,592, a very small sum 
considering the vast area of sparsely settled country 
supplied with postal facilities, and, in some degree, 
'with banking accommodation, and the vast districts; 
traversed on many of the mail routes. The post of¬ 
fice, well administered, is a beneficent means of civili¬ 
zation. 

4<). — The Attorney General’s Department: 
The duty of this officer is to prosecute offenders and con¬ 
duct all suits in the Supreme Court to which the United 
States is a party, and. to give his advice on all questions 
of law upon which his opinion may be required by 
the President, or by the head of any department. 
The general superintendence of United States’ attor¬ 
neys and marshals also devolves upon him, and he di¬ 
rects them in the discharge of their several duties. 
Two Assistant Attorneys General and a Solicitor Gen- 




84 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


eral assist him in the performance of the duties of his 
office. He is also the examiner of titles for all lands 
to be purchased by the United States as sites for light¬ 
houses. custom houses, arsenals, and for other* public 
works. He receives and considers all applications for 
the appointment of judges, district attorneys and mar¬ 
shals ; and, upon appeals being made to the President 
for pardons, or for the remission of the imprisonment 
of public debtors, it becomes the duty of that officer 
to examine into the facts and to report thereupon to 
the President, preparatory to action being taken. 

IX. EARLY HISTORY. 

Trom the first Act of Colonization^ 1607, to the first Continental 
Contjress, 177-1- 

Early Settlement. With the limits of time thus 
placed, we will trace the history and development of 
the colonies, thirteen in all, that united in 1776 to cast 
off the British yoke, after remonstrances had proved 
vain as against the tyranny of the English government. 
Virginia, Massachusetts, Delaware, Maryland, New 
Jersey, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, 
North Carolina, New YWrk, Rhode Island, New Hamp¬ 
shire and Georgia constituted the United States, when 
the Declaration of Independence was signed, but this 
division pauses immediatel}^ before that step was taken 
by our forefathers. There were two classes of colo¬ 
nists among the early settlers: the first comers were of 
the class afterwards known in English history as Cav¬ 
aliers ; they landed in Virginia in 1607 ; the other 
type the Puritans, afterwards known as Roundheads in 
history, landed on Plymouth Rock in 1620, and colo¬ 
nized Massachusetts. The early records show but little 
intercourse and common sympathy among these dist- 
.-aiiit bands of men striving to master a. hard destiny; 
(but in the end the contest resulted well for the world, 
Jn th-G establishment of a home for liberty. 

1.^—^ Virginia. Sir Walter Raleigh is credited 
<with. having given the name of Virginia to the coun- 
’ii'xj in whicli the first English settlement was made on 


UNITED STATES. 


85 


this continent in compliment to Queen Elizabeth. The 
success of the Spaniards in procuring gold from the 
native population in Mexico induced many to believe 
that all America was auriferous, and in consequence, 
men who were not accustomed to daily toil came as 
birds of passage only, intending to return to England 
as soon as they had realized the wealth which they 
never doubted would be found in abundance. To be¬ 
come settlers, in the better sense of the term, was no 
part of their intention. The climate was very trying 
to such persons, and their endeavors to find gold 
assisted to break down their constitutions, so that dur¬ 
ing the first summer, between April 26th and autumn, 
one-half of the colony had died. 

2, — Capt. Smith, an adventurer, who published an 
account of his hair-breadth escapes in London while 
Charles I was quarreling with his parliament, was ap¬ 
parently the ablest man in the colony of Virginia. 
His experiences in many countries under trying cir¬ 
cumstances had given him some readiness and energy, 
and he persuaded the gentlemen of Virginia to become 
foresters and workmen instead of idlers and gold hunt¬ 
ers. At first a prisoner among the settlers, he was 
afterwards chosen a councillor, and then President of 
the council. Under his direction a fort was built, and 
log huts as a protection against wintry rigors ; besides 
which he made friends of the Indians, and procured 
from them supplies of provisions during his exploring 
excursions. Under his guidance the colony came 
through its earliest perils, because he made the rule 
that n^ne should eat except those that would work. 

3. — Idle book published by Capt. John Smith 
contained many proofs of his ingeniousness, as it was 
full of perilous adventures, and beyond all doubt his 
courage led him into many difficulties from which it 
required all his address to find an escape. While 
striving to discover a passage to the East Indies up the 
Chickahominy River, one of the feeders of the James 
River, the adventurer fell into the hands of the Indi- 





86 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


ans, and was detained as a prisoner; but he awakened 
an interest among his captors, by an exhibition of his 
acquirements, and in company with them passed from 
tribe to tribe nearly all over the peninsula in which 
Gen. McClellan operated against Richmond in 1862. 
The great chief Powhatan is said to have condemned 
him to death ; but the story is not absolutely beyond 
doubt, except that men wish to believe it because of 
the interest attaching to the intervention of Pocahontas. 
There was some foundation for the story that the beau¬ 
tiful Indian maiden saved his life, and Smith was after 
a time sent back to the settlement with promises of 
friendship from the Indians. 

4. — Pocahontas continued to be a good friend to 
the white settlers ; but the English government, under 
the incompetent direction of King James I, and his 
favorites, did all that was possible to ruin the adven¬ 
ture. The colonists had established a council to se¬ 
cure just administration, but the company under whom 
the first charter for settlement had been obtained, pro¬ 
cured a second charter — in 1609 — vesting the gov¬ 
ernment in a Governor only, concerning whose appoint¬ 
ment the settlers were never consulted, and in the 
preparation of whose laws they had no voice. They 
were treated as dumb cattle by their masters. 

5. — The President of the Council had been in ef¬ 
fect Governor for some time, and in that capacity the 
adventurer John Smith rendered good service, but 
about the time that the new charter was procured, he 
was severely wounded and returned to England. 
Quarrels with the Indians became common and many 
of the settlers were killed, besides which famine and 
disease decimated the remainder so rapidly that in six 
months their numbers fell from 490 to 60. Some of 
the Colonists had tried to thrive as pirates but their 
opportunities were few and they abandoned the under¬ 
taking. The miserable remnant concluded to abandon 
the settlement, but at the time that they were taking 
their departure the new Governor, Lord Delaware, ar- 


UNITED STATES. 


87 


I rived, with abundant supplies and nnany emigrants. 

I This event changed the aspect of affairs and the men 
who were just quitting their adopted home returned to 
1 trv their fortune once more. 

I — The river on which the first settlement was 

established was called James Eiver, and the settlement 
James Town, in honor of the King of England. The 
King showed his interest in the suffering Colony by 
, issuing a third charter in 1612, allowing stockholders 
in the venture to regulate their own affairs untroubled 
by a council which had been formed in London. 

7. —In the year 1613, Pocahontas, the beautiful 
Indian girl, who is said to have saved the life of John 

I Smith, became the wife of John Kolfe, a planter. 

' Kolfe was a man of singular piety, and his exhorta¬ 

tions had induced Pocahontas to receive Christian 
, baptism before they were joined in wedlock. They 
j were married in the church at Jamestown, and three 
I years later Pocahontas and her husband were in Lon¬ 
don, where they were received at court and in society 
with every mark of distinction. The child of the for¬ 
est soon tired of the scenes by which she was sur¬ 
rounded in London, but she died suddenly in 1617, 
just as she was about to return. Her infant son is 
proudly named as the common ancestor of many of 
the first families in Virginia, and one result of the 
marriage was a prolonged peace between the settlers 
on one hand and the Chickahominies and Powhatan on 
the other. 

8. — The year before the Puritans landed in Massa¬ 
chusetts, which happened in December, 1620, Gov. 
Yeardley called together the first legislative body of 
white men ever convened in America. This event 
happened June 28, 1619, and the parliament was an 
imitation of the King, Lords and Commbns, of the 
mother country, being composed of the Governor, 
Council and Burgesses, the last named being the rep¬ 
resentatives of the Boroughs. The company in Eng¬ 
land might decline* to ratify the laws passed by the 





88 


COUNTIUES OF XOKTIT AMERICA. 


local legislature, but tlic company could not enforce 
laws unless they were approved by the Colonists, and 
the rights thus accruing were embodied in a kind of 
charter or written constitution in 1021. The affairs of 
the company in London were now in the hands of men 
who were deepl}' imbued witli a love of liberty and 
justice, and Grov. Yeardley had their fullest support in 
building up the rights of the Colonists. The consti¬ 
tution dates from Jul}^, 1621, when the New England 
Colony was onl}" seven months old. 

9. — Tobacco growing had become the staple indus- 
tiy in and around Jamestown. Tobacco was the cur¬ 
rency of the Colony, as well as its export, and along 
the James Eiver there were settlements extending on 
both banks for nearl}' one hundred and fifty miles. 
The compau}' which, under its earlier management, 
had sought merely to make a profit out of the adven¬ 
ture, had now set its mind upon making the Colony a 
success, and in consequence many young women were 
sent out from London where they were speedily mar¬ 
ried, husbands paying one hundred weight of tobacco 
as the cost of the bringing over of their future help¬ 
meets. That course of action was eminently success¬ 
ful, and main* of the more enthusiastic Benedicts gave 
150 pounds of tobacco for their better halves?. Do¬ 
mestic obligations gave to the Colony the permanence 
of home in Virginia, where every man could vote and 
none ventured to interfere with religious freedom. 

10 . — In the 3 *ear 1619, while freedom was just be¬ 
ing established on a broad basis in Adrginia, a Dutch 
vessel arrived at Jamestown, with twenU^ negroes, and 
the captain sold them to the planters to be emploved 
in the cultivation of tobacco. That was the begin¬ 
ning of negro slaverv in America, and the traffic con¬ 
tinued for many years, although the first venture on 
the part of American citizens to procure slaves dates 
from Boston, twentj’-six vears later. 

11. — Powhatan was the firm friend of the settlers, 
and had been so since the marriage of his daughter 


UNITED STATES. 


89 


Pocahontas to John Rolfe, hut after his death, in 1618, 
there was a conspiracy among the Indians to murder 
all the colonists on the 22d of March, 1622, at midday. 
Three hundred and forty-seven persons were thus de¬ 
stroyed, but the colony had consisted of 4,000, and 
the remainder were saved in consequence of the kind¬ 
ness of an Indian who wished to save a white man who 
had befriended him. Jamestown was fortified enough 
to scare the Indians from an attack, and. all the settle¬ 
ments within reach were warned, but the outlying 
plantations were beyond rescue, and in them men, 
women and children were slaughtered without mercy. 
The colonists made war upon the Indians after this 
evidence of their treachery, and for more than twenty 
years they were peaceful after that outbreak, but the 
colony only numbered 2,500 persons after hostilities 
had ceased. The Indians made a somewhat similar 
attempt April 18, 1644, when about 300 settlers were 
slain, but the survivors among the natives were glad 
to purchase peace by making considerable cessions of 
territory. The frontier settlements were as usufd the 
points of attack, and the secret was well kept, but the 
courage of the assailants failed even before the settlers 
began to assemble in arms. 

12. — King James annulled the charter under which 
the colony had been governed, and in 1624 made Vir¬ 
ginia a Koyal Province, promising, moreover, to pre¬ 
pare a code of laws for the government of the people, 
but he died in 1625, and that affliction was thus avert¬ 
ed. James had probably become jealous of the liberal 
spirit evinced by the company in London. The gov¬ 
ernor and council were thereafter nominated by the 
king, but Gov. Wyatt, who was governor when the 
charter was annulled, was continued in office, and the 
assembly continued in operation. 

13. — The return of the Stuarts to power in England 
after the death of Oliver Cromwell in 1658 was the 
occasion of very oppressive legislation in the Parlia¬ 
ment of Great Britain, and the colonies which had been 





90 


COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


aided by the Great Protector were now almost crushed I 
by the enforcement of the navigation act in 1660, which j 
required that their tobacco should be shipped to Eng* ; 
land only, and must be carried in English vessels, by 1 
which means a twofold monopoly operated against the 1 ;' 
industries of Virginia. The first Charles had tried in |j 
vain to raise a revenue upon Virginian tobacco, but | 
the advisers of the son were more successful. In 1658 f 
“the Dutch and all foreigners ” were invited to take i 
part with Virginia, subject to the same duties as were y 
paid by English vessels, but times speedily changed to a j j 
worse complexion. The cavalier element was largely ? 
represented in the colonial assembly, and they played i 
the game of the long parliament in England, usurping 
unconstitutional authority. When their term of office 
expired, they refused to be dissolved, and they fixed 
their own emoluments at 250 pounds of tobacco 
diem. Their tyranny increased with every manifesta¬ 
tion of their power. The voting privilege wms restricted 
to freeholders and housekeepers, and the few Quakers ' 
in the settlement were taxed at the rate of $1,200 per 
annum for nonattendance in the Anglican church. 

The Eoyalists contrived thus to establish in Virginia f 
two well defined parties, the wealth}^ planters assum- f' 
ing the airs of an aristocracy, making common cause 
with the office holders, and the industrious liberty lov¬ 
ing people consorting together as men deprived of un¬ 
doubted rights. 

14. — The Premonitory Rising known as Bacon’s 
Rebellion, which occurred one century, exactly, before 
the Declaration of Independence, was the natural and 
almost the inevitable outcome of the system introduced i 
and upheld by the Royalist Assembly. Gov. Berke¬ 
ley. who once made his boast that “ there were no free ' 
schools nor printing presses in Virginia,” had been re¬ 
moved from office as Governor by Cromwell, in 1651; 
but being restored by Charles II in 1660, he continued 
in office until the year before his death, which took 
place in London in 1677. During 1676, there were | 








UNITED STATES. 


91 


troubles with the Indians, and provision had not been 
made for the defense of the colony, until a young law¬ 
yer named Bacon, aged about 86 years, raised a com¬ 
pany and routed the marauders. For that service 
Gov. Berkeley denounced the leader as guilty of 
treason, and Nicholas Bacon came, with his armed fol¬ 
lowers, to discuss the question. The Governor was 
driven out of Jamestown, the settlement was burned, 
and the village has never been rebuilt; but just when 
things promished a favorable outcome for the people, 
the young leader died, Oct. 1, 1676, and in the absence 
of efficient direction, the attempt was quelled by Berke¬ 
ley with great severity. 

15. — Massachusetts. New England was the 
ambition of the Ph^mouth Company, but like most of 
the adventurers that formed companies on the other 
side of the Atlantic, they knew but little of the task 
which they proposed to undertake. Several attempts 
were made on behalf of the Plymouth Company to 
explore and settle Northern Virginia, and a colony 
was actually established on the Kennebec in 1607, but 
the men composing the expedition had not the mate¬ 
rial of which success is made, and the settlement was 
abandoned in 1608, only one of the party having died. 
In the year 1620 the company procured a new patent 
as the Council of New England, with great privileges 
and concessions, but the settlement of New England 
was not to be achieved under their auspices. 

16. — Plymouth Rock was reached by the Pilgrim 
Fathers and their families, on board the Mayflower, in 
December, 1620, and they landed, to the number of 
one hundred souls, in the midst of a storm of snow 
and sleet. They had endured too many hardships in 
their search for freedom to worship God to care for the 
inclemency of the season. The actual landing was 
made on Forefathers’ Rock, as it is now called, on De¬ 
cember 21st, the day being Sunday. The first hours 
of the new comers in their adopted home were thus 
given to worship; but their diligence on the succeed- 








92 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


ing days showed that their hours of devotion had re¬ 
cuperated minds strong by nature, and their spirits 
could not be cast down by obstacles and difficulties. 

17. — The moral force of the Pilgrims had been 
proved and improved by the persecutions already en¬ 
dured by them in the name of religion, and the wilder¬ 
ness, cold and inhospitable as it seemed, was not more 
rugged than their determination to subdue it to their 
purposes as a home; in which liberty, as they under¬ 
stood the word, should reign supreme, and in which 
God should be worshipped by all men, according to 
the views for which they had lived and suffered. Pri¬ 
marily it was their care that their children should be 
surrounded by religious influences, and be well edu¬ 
cated, and they were thrifty in the management of 
their affairs, being in every respect most worthy and 
desirable citizens. 

18. — Trials of fortitude were not wanting at 
any time in the new settlement; but during the first 
winter, the worse than usually severe weather, and the 
unprepared condition in which it found them, killed 
more than half their number. There were hardly as 
many in good health as sufficed to bury the dead and 
attend upon the invalids; at one time there were only 
seven who were not sick ; but the constancy of the little 
band never wavered for a moment. 

19. — The Pilgrims who were sent with the shal¬ 
lop to inspect the coast before a landing was effected 
at Forefathers’ Kock, on December 21st (new style), 
endured one attack from Indians; but after the settle¬ 
ment had been made, the colony was undistubed from 
that source. The tribe that had lived upon the terri¬ 
tory which they occupied had been killed off by a 
pestilence, so that they were not trespassing in any 
way upon natural rights. Samoset, one of the tribe of 
Wampanoags, who had learned some few words of 
English, came to visit them one day in early spring, 
with words of welcome, and a treaty was entered into 
with Massasoit, the chief of his tribe, which for fifty 


UNITED STATES. 


93 


years was observed on both sides. Miles Standish, 
whose fame has been sung by Longfellow, was the 
commander of the small force of the colony ; but there 
was little occasion for actual war. One sachem, named 
Canonicus, who wavered in his faith as to the Pil¬ 
grims, sent a token of defiance, but a reply that could 
not be misunderstood, convinced the Narraganset chief 
that he could not afford to fight the new comers. Gov. 
Carver having died soon after the departure of the 
Mayflower, the office was conferred upon William 
Bradford, afterwards the historian of the settlement. 

20. — Starvation seemed for a long time an immi¬ 
nent probability. For many months there was no corn 
in the settlement, as the harvest proved a failure. It 
is customary to mention that at one time there was 
only a pint of corn to be divided, and that the allow¬ 
ance of each settler was only five kernels each, but 
the actual fact reveals much greater destitution, clams 
being the only food available for considerable inter¬ 
vals. Communistic methods of working were tried 
here, as the same system had been tried in the early 
days at Jamestown, and in both cases failure was the 
result, until every man worked his own land, after 
which there was comparative plenty. Four years 
after the first settlement there were only 184 persons 
in the colony, and it was ten years before the Council 
for New England gave the colony a grant for the land 
which it had occupied. The people chose their own 
Governor, as no royal charter clogged their liberties, 
and they made their own laws. 

21. —The Bay Colony. John Endicott, the 
first Governor of the Colony of Massachusetts, was 
about forty years of age when he came to America, 
and although a severe man, it was undoubtedly his 
desire to be honest. He, with five associates, procured 
a grant of land about Massachusetts Bay from the 
English Company, and a Eoyal charter, with power to 
make laws and rule the Colony. The Company made 
over their rights to the people who might take part in 


94 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


the enterprise, and as a consequence many Puritan 
families were attracted to this region. Salem and 
Charlestown already founded by Governor Endicottin 

1629, formed centres of attraction for many; some col¬ 
onized Watertown and Dorchester, and in the year 

1630, Boston was founded on the site known as Shaw- 
mut, afterwards called Tremont, by about one thou¬ 
sand colonists under Gov. Winthrop. 

22 , — Religious Intolerance was the vice of the 
age from which the Puritans fled, but it infected the 
men who ran from it, as well as their pursuers. Those 
who established themselves in Massachusetrs Bay 
were opposed to the forms of the Church of England, 
and when yjersons who were inclined to Episcopacy 
came to their Colony, they sent them back again to 
England. A system of religious tests was rigorously 
insisted upon in the settlement. Among the new 
comers was one man, whose admirable heterodoxy 
took the form of asserting that every person should 
think for himself on all matters of religion, being an¬ 
swerable only to God. This man was the great Roger 
Williams, and a bonfire in the midst of a powder mag¬ 
azine could hardly have caused a greater commotion 
than did his manl}^ teaching, around Massachusetts 
Bay. The interference of the civil magistrate irr sup¬ 
posed offenses against religious thought was denounced 
by him as unjust, and in 1635 an order was made that 
the Preacher should be sent to England; but instead 
of submitting to that mandate, he fled to the woods, 
taking refuge among the Indians, who afterwards gave 
him land whereon to found a settlement, which he 
called Providence. The state of Rhode Island was 
thus founded, and although the grant from the Indians 
was to Roger Williams in person, he did not reserve to 
himself one privilege, but sought to build up a purely 
democratic form of g >vernment with such light, as to 
conscience, as was then new to the world. In the 
same relation the name of Anne Hutchinson arises, as 
during the same year as that which marked the ban- 







UNITED STATES. 


95 


ishment of Eoger Williams from his church at Salem, 

I this wonderful woman, who claimed to have received 
^ special communications from on high, w^as the centre of 
a great controversy, as her preachings and expositions 
1 attracted so much notice, especially among her own 
sex, that she was banished eventually, and found ref¬ 
uge in Ehode Island, where none were questioned as 
to their religious views, as under authority. Eventu¬ 
ally this pure and high minded woman was murdered 
by the Indians, but her record remained undimmed. 
The Society of Friends or Quakers also, in their quiet 
way, disturbed the peace of Massachusetts, and it was 
I in vain that they were fined, imprisoned, whipped and 
! banished, as their opinions and practices remained un- 
, altered. Four of them were put to death, because 
; they had returned to the settlement after being ban- 
! ished, but that acme of severity had no effect on the 
j remainder, except to make them more persistent, and 
j| at last it became so evident that the persecutions could 
only make martyrs, that the iniquitous system was 
j abandoned. 

I 23- — The First Indian War commenced July 
I 14, 1675, under the leadership of Philip the son and 
successor of the Sachem Massasoit. While the old 
chief lived there was peace, but the young' man saw 
that the red me'n were being dispossessed of their hold 
upon the soil, and he sought to avert the doom of 
extinction by an act of savage daring and cruelty, 
which aimed at the destruction of the whole Colony. 
The tribes were confederated for the deed of slaughter, 
and the first blow fell upon the people of Swanzey, gs 
they returned from church on Sunday. The Colonists 
flew to arms, and Philip was defeated, but he only 
shifted the point of attack, and seemed to be ubiqui¬ 
tous. Tradition, not of the most reliable kind, says 
that an attack upon the people of Hadley was made 
on fast day, June 12, 1675, and was defeated by the 
prompt energy of Col. Goffe, one of the Judges that 
condemned Charles I to the scaffold, but eyen the 




96 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

date of the assault varies as widely as from June 12th 
to September 1st, in the same year, and it seems prob- , 
able that the whole story is an error. Philip was driv¬ 
en from point to point by the settlers, until he was shot . 
by an Indian at Mt. Hope, after having kept the coun¬ 
try in continual turmoil until far on in the year 1676. 

24. — The First Union of the Colonies only em¬ 
braced the Hew England settlements, and it dates from 
1643, when Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, Plym¬ 
outh and Hew Haven formed a league against the In¬ 
dians, the Dutch and the French settlers. The combi¬ 
nation was known as the United Colonies of Hew 
England. 

25. — The navigation Act which we have seen 
oppressing Virginia, was still more cumbersome to Mas¬ 
sachusetts, as the commerce of these colonies was con¬ 
siderable. Boston was known as a shipping place 
from the first year of its settlement, and the colonists 
concluded that the act should not prevent them carry¬ 
ing on their trade with the West Indies and elsewhere. 
Charles II and his advisers determined to put down 
the independent spirit of the people, but when an 
officer was sent to enforce the law, he was sent back 
again. The next step was to constitute Massachusetts 3 
a Royal Province, which would take from the people 
all powers of self government; but Charles died be- ■ 
fore the scheme bore fruit, and his obstinate brother 
James II undertook the task. In the year 1686, two 
years before he was compelled to abdicate the throne 

of England, James declared the charters of all the 
Hew England Colonies cancelled, and sent out Sir | 
Edmund Andros as Royal Governor of Hew England. I 
For three years the oppressions of the Royal appointee I 
were endured, but as soon as it became known that f 
William III reigned in England, the colonists deposed ^ 
and imprisoned the Governor, resuming their old forms ‘ 
of administration until Sir William Phipps came, -t 
three years later, as the Governor of Massachusetts, i 
Maine and Hova Scotia; after which Massachusetts I 
remained a Royal Province until 1776. I 










IHE JECKGmSH LANDING AT NEMT iVDRK. 1664, 



















































UNITED STATES. 


97 


26. — The Witchcraft Delusion in Salem, came 
to a head in the year 1692. The belief in witches was 
at that time all but universal; Kings, Judges, Clergy¬ 
men, and men of Science, were alike under the delu¬ 
sion all over the world; and in Salem twenty persons 
were hanged and fifty-five tortured, because of their 
supposed complicity in hellish practices. Any and 
every story that was confidently told, on this sub¬ 
ject, was sure of credence; and persons of all ranks 
were suspected, more especidlly if they expressed 
doubts as to the guilt of the accused. The delusion 
ran its course, however, and at last died out; but not 
before many persons had confessed themselves guilty 
of the abominable impossibilities charged against them. 

27. — Maine and New Eampsiiike. Laconia 
was the name of a tract of land which was obtained 
from the New England Company, located at Ply¬ 
mouth, England, in 1622, by Gov. Gorges and others, 
forming a proprietary. The grant obtained extended 
from the Kennebec to the Merrimack. Sir Ferdinando 
Gorges was an accomplice with the Earl of Essex in 
his conspiracy against Queen Elizabeth, and became a 
w'itness against him in 1601. Under James I, Gorges 
became Governor of Plymouth in 1604, and. much of 
his life was spent in trying to found an empire for his 
family in this country. Gorges was named Lord Pro¬ 
prietary of Maine, and his son was general governor 
for New England; but eventually the grandson of the 
original grantee sold his rights in Maine to the colony 
of Massachusetts for $6,250, in 1677. Under the 
patent first obtained. Gorges and Mason operated for 
some time, but beyond establishing fishing stations 
near Dover and Portsmouth, nothing was effected 
until the patent was dissolved, when the country west 
of the Piscataqua was taken by Mason, who named it 
New Hampshire ; Maine, the country east of that river, 
being possessed by Gorges. The territory was claimed 
by Massachusetts, and it was to end all dispute as to 
the title that the sum named was paid to the grandson 

7 



98 COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

of Sir Ferdinando, as set forth. The inclusion which 
was thus effected, continued until 1820. The settle¬ 
ments in New Hampshire were too weak for purposes 
of self government and defense, and, in consequence, 
the stronger colony of Massachusetts was called upon 
to afford protection, so that the weaker was engrossed 
by the more powerful colony until 1741, when New 
Hampshire became a Koyal Province, and enjoyed 
that distinction until the 37-ear 1776. The province 
was called Maine to distinguish it from the islands 
along the coast, and the name once adopted continued. 
The grants conferred upon individuals such as Mason 
and Gorges, were fi-equently sources of much litigation. 

28. — Connecticut. Further West was already 
the cry of the New England colonists, and the valley 
of the Connecticut or Long Elver as that name implies 
in the Indian tongue, was the point of attraction. In- , 
telligence concerning the situation had been obtained 
from traders who had built a fort at Windsor before the « 
Council of New England had granted the territory. 
The Dutch had a fort at Hartford, and also had com¬ 
menced traffic with the Indians, from participating in 
which they vainly strove to keep the English colonists. 
The requisite grant from the council was procured in 
1631, by two of the Puritan Lords in England, Saye 
and Seal, and Brooke, after whom the settlement was 
called Saybrook. The first regular settlers were led 
to the site of Hartford in 1637, but winter came on 
early in that year and with great severity, so that men 
and cattle died in considerable numbers before the 
spring, and the complete abandonment of the enter- 
prize was determined upon; but in the spring of 
1636 a much larger body came under the guidance of 
I'homas Hooker and John Haynes, guided b}^- the com¬ 
pass only, and driving flocks and herds before them. 

A fort established by John Winthrop, shut out the ' 
“Dutch Intruders from Manhattan,” a regular govern¬ 
ment was established and better times realized. The 
meadow lands of the Connecticut were the principal 





UNITED STATES. 99 

source of attraction, but the Indian trade was not de¬ 
spised. 

29. — Indian Perils environed the Western Colo¬ 
ny, and the Narragansets were about to join the 
Pequods to make war upon the settlement, when the 
founder of Phode Island, the blameless and admirable 
Poger Williams, who had communicated the fact of 
the impending combination to the Governor of Massa¬ 
chusetts, and had been requested by Sir Harry Vane 
to interpose his influence with the Narragansets, start¬ 
ed for the heart of the combination and in the very 
midst of the Pequods used his persuasive arts so 
effectually, that he saved the men who had been the 
cause of his banishment. The conduct of the great 
Poman Cariolanus shows but poorly beside the unpre¬ 
tentious nobility of the leader of free thought. His 
labors and perils extended over three days, and it is 
safe to say that no other man would have succeeded as 
he did. The Pequods unable to drag the Narragansets 
into the war which had been commenced, were com¬ 
pelled to fight unsupported, and the colony was saved 
from absolute destruction. Thirty of the settlers were- 
murdered, before an expedition under the command of 
Mason was detrrnined upon, consisting of eighty mer> 
in all, well armed for such an enterprise, undertook to^ 
humble the Pequods. The superiority of European 
arms left no chance in such an encounter for the clans^ 
on the Mistic Piver, although they were as hundreds to- 
tens. Their fort of palissades on the summit of a hill 
was carried by the Connecticut forces, the wigwams 
set on fire, and as the warriors tried to escape they 
were shot down or hunted to death afterwards. Almost 
the whole tribe perished in one day and all their lands 
were laid waste. 

30.— ‘Hlnion is Srength,” was the motto among 
all the scattered colonies, and combinations were made 
in every locality where support could be given and re¬ 
ceived by the different settlements. During the 
Pequod war the Governor of Massachusetts gave as- 



100 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

sistance by men and cousels to the Connecticut cojony. 
This settlement comprised Hartford, Windsor and 
Wethersfield among which a written constitution, the 
first framed on this continent by the people themselves, 
gave the right of voting to all free men. Saybrook 
Colony was a proprietary settlement at first, but Con¬ 
necticut bought the company’s rights and the settlement 
was included under its laws. Hew Haven Colony took 
the bible for law and government, and the settlement 
was under church rule. The absorption of Saybrook 
by Connecticut left only two colonies in the region 
named. 

31. — Definitive Union was secured 1662, by the 
issue of a Eoyal charter by Charles II, under the in¬ 
fluence of John Winthrop, which extended to all the 
colonists in the combination the rights certified under 
the Connecticut constitution. King Charles could be 
induced to indorse such liberal provisions in sheer 
thoughtlessness, although he would have annulled all 
the charters if his life had been spared. His brother 
James in 1686, sent Governor Andrews to Hartford to 
demand the surrender of the Eoyal gift. The charter 
was about to be handed over when the chamber was 
suddenly darkened, and before the candles could be 
relighted Captain Wadsworth had disappeared through 
the crowd, and the document, safely hidden in the 
Charter Oak, was not visible again until Governor An¬ 
drews had returned to Boston. The annulment exe¬ 
cuted by the Eoyalist Governor was of no avail, and 
three years later James II, having fled from England, 
Governor Andrews was imprisoned by the colonists. 
The charter w^as to have been violated in 1693 under 
the rule of Governor Fletcher, but Captain Wadsworth 
intimidated the Governor into abandoning the project. 

32. — Ehode Island. Freedom of Thought was 
the watchword of this colony from the first. °Before 
Eoger Williams came to the Island, William Black- 
stone, an independent, who had become tired of the 
rigorous rule of the church in Boston, had settled near 







UNITED STATES. 


101 


the site of Providence; and as we have seen, Eoger 
WiHiams made his settlement in 1686, cotemporary 
with the second expedition to Hartford under Hooker. 
From all the settlements, those who were oppressed 
made their way to Khode Island, and Williams gave 
of his lands to every one until only two small pieces 
which he had cultivated from the first remained in his 
own possession. Mrs. Hutchinson, and some of her 
followers, came to the settlement; the good woman 
having been banished from Massachusetts, as being 
worse even than Koger Williams in the vindication of 
liberty of conscience. Some of the new comers estab¬ 
lished the Rhode Island Plantation on the Island of 
Aquiday. The name Rhode came from the Dutch 
roode, or red. In this colony the civil magistrate had 
no power to interfere with men on account of their re¬ 
ligious views. 

33. — Roger Williams, one of the least worldly of 
men, was obliged at every step to combat the preju¬ 
dices of his surroundings, all of them men able to ap¬ 
preciate his goodness, but impressed with the idea that 
he was light headed because he upheld freedom of 
thought. The Rhode Island settlement was denied the 
right to join the New England Union on the. plea that 
no charter had been granted, and the preacher made a 
voyage to England while the civil war was progress¬ 
ing in that country which ended in the triumph of 
Cromwell. Returning with a charter in 1647, the 
people were convened to elect their officers, and to 
affirm the principle of religious liberty ; which was the 
more remarkable in that age, because those who were 
most sealous against the old tyrannies, or so called 
orthodox thought, were among the readiest to put 
pressure upon the thoughts of other men. 

34. — New Yoke. Ferdinand, Duke of Alva, 
boasted that he had put to death 18,000 Netherland- 
ers during the war for the supression of Protestantism 
in the low countries, but he could not destroy the spirit 
of enterprise and reform among the people, and soon 





102 


COUNTEIES OF KORTH AMERICA. 


after the discovery and exploration of the river in 1609 
which bears the name of Hendrik Hudson to this day, 
Dutch ships began to arrive to cultivate a trade with 
the Indians. Settlements were made by the West 
India Company, at New Amsterdam in 1613, and at 
Albany, on the west bank of the Hudson, in 1614, and 
Fort Orange, or Aurania, was built in 1623. This set¬ 
tlement was successively called Beverwyck and Wil- 
liamstadt, before the name of Albany was given, in 
compliment to the Duke of York and Albany, after¬ 
wards James II. of England. Patrons or Patroons, 
who brought fifty emigrants with them were allowed 
by the company to buy land direct from the Indians, 
and titles so obtained were indefeasable. The Van 
Pensselaer family obtained twenty-four miles square 
on both sides of the Hudson. 

35. — New Amsterdam, on the Island of Man¬ 
hattan, had four Dutch governors in succession, ending 
with Peter Stu 3 wesant, the ablest of the quartette, but 
none of them were able to understand the principles of 
civil liberty. Dutch Burgomasters could not compre¬ 
hend the claims of the colonists to enjoy such privil¬ 
eges as had been conceded to the settlers in Connecti¬ 
cut, as the liberties of the Netherlands had been mere-, 
ly the crystallization of the powers of a commercial 
aristrocracy, under which the people enjoyed but little 
freedom. The Swedish settlement on the Delaware and 
the English settlers on the Connecticut troubled the 
peace of the Dutchmen when they were not engaged in 
warfare with the Indians, but in the end, Peter Stuyves- 
antcame to terms with Connecticut as to the territory 
lying between Connecticut Elver and the Delaware, and 
being thus enabled to give undivided attention to the 
Swedes he reduced their settlement to submission. 
This happened in 1664 and in September of that year, 
just when affairs looked more sound than they had 
ever appeared before, since the first landing, an English 
fleet demanded an unconditional surrender in the name 
of the Admiral, the Duke of York. The people were 


UNITED STATES. 


103 


certain of more liberty under the new rule than they 
•were enjoying, so they refused to fight, and tlie brave 
old Govornor was compelled to capitulate. The name 
was then changed to New York in honor of the Duke, 
who was thenceforth considered the proprietor. 

36. — Connecticut Privileges were not conceded 
by the new rulers, the people were taxed arbitrarily 
and their remonstrances were burned contemptuously 
by the hangman, so that there was no difficulty about 
the reconquest of the settlement in 1673, when the 
Dutch fleets had become masters of the seas. The 
fleets prepared by Cromwell had been the means of 
the first conquest, but since Charles II ascended the 
throne, England had so much declined in power, that 
it was feared the Dutch, who had sailed up the Thames, 
would even sack London. The presence of a Dutch 
fleet caused the name of New Amsterdam to be once 
more assumed, but when the war came to an end in 
1674, England was allowed to resume the mastery. 
Gov. Andros, who was afterwards imprisoned by the 
Colonists of New England, was the first ruler ap¬ 
pointed after the resumption, and his conduct was so 
monstrous that he was recalled by Charles II. Gov. 
Dongan, the next comer, obtained permission from the 
Duke of York to convene a popular assembly, but 
when the Duke became King he revoked every con¬ 
cession, added New York to the New England Prov¬ 
ince, of which Andros became governor, forfeited all 
the charters, forbid assemblies and denounced print¬ 
ing, carrying out on this continent the bigoted rule 
which was the cause of his downfall in England in 
1688. The deputy governor that represented Andros 
in New York was so conscious of his own misdeeds, 
that he fled as soon as he learned that the people of 
Boston had imprisoned Andros ; and in the absence 
of other rule, Capt. Leislor, an able man, in whom the 
people had much faith, assumed the direction of aflairs. 
The first governor appointed by William and Mary 
was named Slaughter, and his most objectionable deed 




104 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

was the slaughter of Leislor on a baseless charge of 
treason. It is claimed that Gov. Slaughter was drunk 
when the order was made to gratify the aristocratic 'i 
enemies of the captain. The rule henceforward was 
less arbitrary until the days of George III, but there 
continued to be enough of tyranny to maintain the vigi¬ 
lance of the people in defending their rights. i 

37. — New Jersey. Dutch Parentage must be 
conceded to the settlements first made in New Jersey, 
and soon after the Duke of York became proprietor 
of the New Netherlands, he handed over the territory 
between the Hudson River and Delaware to Sir George 
Carterel and Lord Berkeley. Elizabethtown was 
named after Lady Carterel in 1664, by a company of 
settlers from Long Island and the New England Colo- i 
nies, and thus the first permanent English colony in 
New Jersey was established almost at the same date 

as the surrender of New Amsterdam to the English 
fleet. 

38. — Further Settlement was mainly due to the 
Quakers, although Puritans and Scotch Presbyterians 
lagely possessed the land. West Jersey was the por¬ 
tion belonging to Lord Berkeley who sold to some 
English Quakers, and a settlement from that body 
was formed at Burlington, being joined by large num- ^ 
bers subsequently. East Jersey was purchased from 
Carterel’s heirs, after his death, by another company 

of twelve Quakers, including William Penn, and the 
the colony prospered. 

39. — The Consolidation of New Jersey was 
effected in 1702, when the whole of the proprietors ^ 
surrendered their rights of rule to the English Crown, 
and the settlements were united to New York under 
one governor, but with an assemby to legislate on 
local affairs. In the year 1738, New Jersey was con-* 
stituted a Royal Province, at the request of the people, 
during the reign of George 11. 

40. — Delaware was originally settled by the ^ 
Swedes in 1637, and it is now, with the exception of 







UNITED STATES. 


105 


Rhode Island, the smallest state in the union, terri¬ 
torially considered. The first permanent settlement, 
near Wilmington, was called New Sweden in honor of 
the land of their nativity by the Swedish Colonists, 
but the Dutch, under DeVries, had established a col¬ 
ony in 1630, near Lewes in Sussex county. The 
Dutch colony, only thirty in number, was destroyed 
by the Indians in 1633. The Swedes and Finns act¬ 
ing under the Swedish West India Company, built a 
fort at the mouth of Christiana Creek, and another on 
Tinicum Island, below Philadelphia. This action pro¬ 
voked hostilities on the part of the Dutch, and after 
much fighting the Dutchmen conquered, sending 
back to Sweden all the Colonists who would not swear 
allegiance to Holland. 

41. — Lord De La Warr, who came to govern 
Virgina just when the Colonists were leaving James¬ 
town in 1610, entered Delaware Bay in that year, and 
his name now attaches to the state, although Hendrick 
Hudson was the first explorer in 1609. When New 
York fell into the hands of the English, Delaware was 
claimed by the Duke of York. Lord Baltimore as¬ 
serted that he had a prior claim under a grant from 
the crown, but the Duke, being the king’s brother, 
carried the day, and in 1682, sold his rights to William 
Penn, who, after litigation with Baltimore, became 
established as the proprietor in 1685. Delaware was 
thus included .in Pennsylvania for more than twenty 
years, but in the year 1703, the right to secede was 
procured, still the colonj^ was governed by the Gov- 
orner of Pennsylvania until 1776. 

4*2, — The Three Lower Counties on the Dela¬ 
ware suffered but little from Indian and foreign wars, 
from the time that the English came into possession, 
but, during the struggle made by the colonies to dis¬ 
possess the French, Delaware did its share with honor 
and alacrity; and, later in the day of liberty, “The 
Blue Hen’s Chickens” distinguished themselves on 
many a sanguinary field. 



106 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

43. — Pennsylvania. Quakerism had never be¬ 
fore so good an opportunity to distinguish its peculiar 
tenets as were afforded when William Penn obtained 
from Charles II a grant of the land lying west of the 
Delaware Kiver. The addition of the territory, which 
the Duke of York claimed, was the result of a pur¬ 
chase, and Pennsylvania was taken in liquidation of a 
debt which probably would never have been paid 
otherwise. The followers of George Fox were bitterly 
persecuted in England, as well as in some of the 
American Colonies, and Penn desired to found a set¬ 
tlement in which that worthy body, his colleagues, 
might enjoy freedom to worship God according to their 
consciences. Two thousand men were sent over by 
him in a single year, and, shortly after, the founder of 
the colony came to superintend the establishment of 
his friends in peace. 

44. — Brotherly Love was the basis on which 
Penn sought to build up a state, and when Philadel¬ 
phia was founded, in 1683, the land was purchased 
from the Swedish colonists. The site was in the 
midst of woodlands, and game of all kinds abounded, 
but the settlement grew apace. There were one hun¬ 
dred houses within twelve months, two thousand in¬ 
habitants within the next year, and, before 1686, Phila¬ 
delphia already outstripped New York, which had 
been settled more than fifty-three years. 

45. — Penn’s Toleration was the highest enuncia¬ 
tion of that principle extant, except that in operation 
in Rhode Island. Unlike most persecuted people, the 
Quakers did not wish to persecute, and the body con¬ 
vened to make laws, soon after the arrival of their 
founder, promulgated what is known as “ The Great 
Law,” which made faith in Christ the only qualifica¬ 
tion for voting or holding office, and protected from 
molestation for the sake of religion all men having 
faith in Almighty God. Jews, who have been en¬ 
franchised in all the leading civilized nations, were not 
embraced in the toleration of Pennsylvania, which, by 



UNITED STATES. 


107 


SO much, fell short of the higher standard adopted hy 
Eoger Williams. William Penn did not aim at per¬ 
sonal aggrandizement, nor did he wish to have his 
■ name prefixed to “Svlvania,” which was the appella- 
^ tiori selected by him for the lands granted by Charles 
II. That addition was made in spite of his earnest 
. solicitation. lie gave the people every concession 
j that his powers would permit, and that seemed to be 
! necessary for their welfare. Ilis position as a courtier 
! during the reign of the Stuarts was compromising, but 
, his influence was always exerted on behalf of a 
people otherwise universally oppressed. The dress 
which was worn by William Penn as a courtier has 
continued for centuries as the distinguishing: garb of 
the sect to which he belonged, and is indirectly an 
evidence of the esteem in which he is held. 

46. — The Grand Indian Treaty is not described 
by any cotemporary writer who was on the spot to 
make a record of the transaction; but it is attested by 
letters both before and after the event, and the large 
elm tree at Shakarnaxon, near Philadelphia, is fre¬ 
quently named. The interview was not for the pur¬ 
chase of lands, but for the ratification of a treaty of 
amity, which has always been observed on both sides. 
The Indians were much impressed by the kindly man- 
: ners of the founder. The tree was prostrated by a 

storm, in 1810, and a monument now stands upon the 
spot where it flourished. Penn’s address to the In¬ 
dians was a singular piece of natural eloquence. 

, 47. — The Founder of Pennsylvania departed from 

I the colony in ^ 1684, leaving all his friends peaceful 
and at peace. Ilis last words before sailing were, 
“My love salutes you all.” One woman was brought 
to trial charged with being a witch, during Penn’s 
visit; he presided on the trial, and the poor woman 
was acquitted. This was the end of such trials in 
Pennsylvania. After the death of William Penn, 
which took place in 1718, his heirs became proprietors, 
and they ruled the colony by their deputies until the 










108 COUNTEIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

revolution, after which the state bought out their 
rights by a payment of nearly $500,000. 

4^^ _L Maryland. Religious Persecution was the 
chief reason why the settlement in Maryland was 
made in the year 1634 by Lord Baltimore. The title 
is now extinct, but the name will probably endure to 
the end of time. The first Lord Baltimore was a 
Catholic, and stood high in the favor of King’James I, 
who hated Puritanism and Presbyterianism almost as 
much as he loved himself. James raised him to the 
peerage and afterwards gave him a grant in New¬ 
foundland whereon to establish a colony. In the year 
1625, Baltimore went to Newfoundland, but the at¬ 
tempt to establish a settlement was a failure. Three 
years later he was in Virginia, hoping to find in that 
colony a tolerant spirit toward his co-religionists, but 
be was disappointed, and, upon his return, he memo¬ 
rialized Charles I, who had become King, asking a 
grant of the area now known as Maryland. His son 
became the founder of the state under the grant sued 
out by the first Lord, who died in 1632, and his sec¬ 
ond son, Leonard Calvert, became Grovernor, having 
conducted an expedition for the foundation of the 
colony, which left England in November, 1633. The 
name Maryland was in compliment to the Queen of 
England, daughter of the famous Henri of Navarre, 
whose second name was Maria. Upon the land north 
of the Potomac, granted by Charles I, the first settle¬ 
ment was named St. Mary’s, at an Indian village near 
the mouth of the Potomac. 

49. — The Maryland Charter di%red favorablyi 
from that of Virginia, and the first action under it was 
to secure for men of all religious persuasions perfect 
liberty, provided only that the persons claiming toler¬ 
ation were Christians. Every freeman had a voice in 
legislation, and Maryland soon became known next to 
Rhode Island as the refuge of persecuted souls. The 
charters issued by the English government were often 
so loosely drawn that one overlapped another’s boun- 







UNITED STATES. 


109 


daries, and in consequence oC some such error, interne¬ 
cine strife commenced between Maryland and Virginia 
in the year 1635. There were other disturbances also. 

50. — Councillor Clayborne, one of the digni¬ 
taries of Jamestown, in Virginia, stubbornly contended 
that Lord. Baltimore’s grant overlapped the boundaries 
of Virginia, and he erected trading posts in Maryland, 
determining to hold them against the new comers. 
This happened in 1635. There was some fighting and 
Clayborne’s party was beaten. He did not w^ait the 
result of the contest, but returned to Virginia, whence 
he was sent to England to be tried as a traitor. He 
was acquitted of the charge, and in 1645 returned to 
Maryland where he succeeded in raising a rebellion 
which overpowered the Grovernor for a time; but after a 
brief interval. Gov. Calvert came back to the colony 
with a force sufficient to defeat Clayborne, and upon 
his escape the rebellion ended. 

51. — Intolerance prevailed in the Maryland 
assembly as soon as the Protestants became strong 
enough to control that body. Catholics w^ere expelled 
or excluded from the legislative body which had been 
established by themselves, and they were declared out¬ 
laws. There were for a time two governments, and 
from 1691 to 1715, the Baltimores were deprived of 
their rights as proprietors. Civil war went on with 
alternate successes for some years, and in the main the 
Church of England gained the mastery. Catholics being 
disfranchised. After the year 1715, the fourth Lord 
Baltimore procured a recognition of his rights, and tol¬ 
eration became the rule once more. After that time 
the course of events went on without disturbance 
worthy of note until 1776. 

52. — South Carolina. Charles II granted a 
large tract of land to his councillor. Lord Clarendon, 

I and several other noblemen, in 1663, and this vast area 
south of Virginia was called Carolina from Carolus in 
his honor. The first colony that was established in 
South Carolina was on the banks of the River Ashley 



110 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


in 1670, and tins was known as the Carteret colony. l| 
Ten years later the settlers concluded that they would 
move their quarters, and in 1680 they emigrated to a 
tongue of land between the Cooper and Ashley Rivers, 
the site of the present city of Charleston, seven miles | 
from the Atlantic, and surrounded by every facility ! 
for an unbounded commerce. There is no finer harbor 
on the Atlantic coast. The growth of the settlement 
was not rapid during the first half century, but after 
that time it increased considerably. The Dutch came 
ftom New York and the surrounding country, and the 
Huguenots from France also contributed a large quota 
toward the limited success that was achieved. 

51^. — John Lockes Ijcrjislation. It often happens 
that great philosophers fail when the}^ attempt to bring 
down the theorems of the closet to the w^ork of every 
day life. Locke serves to illustrate that fact. In con¬ 
cert with the brilliant Earl of Shaftesbury, the philos¬ 
opher undertook to make laws for Carolina, and he did 
so; but the S 3 ^stem was entirely misconceived. The 
comprehensive writer on “The Understanding,” al¬ 
lowed no understanding to the people, who were en¬ 
tirely lost sight of in a magnificent display of manors, 
baronies and feudal titles, such as could only provoke 
laughter, wherever a new attempt might he made to 
create them. After much time spent in unavailing 
endeavors to bring the scheme into operation, the 
abortive code was indefinitely abandoned. 

54. — The Ro\’al Province of South Carolina known 
as the Carteret colony dates from 1729, when the pro¬ 
prietaries becoming tired of the continuous jealousies 
of the people, who were unwilling to pay rents and 
taxes, and who resented every attempt at arbitrary 
procedure, surrendered to the British Crown their 
rights of government, and retained only one-eighth of 
the soil. Up to that time South Carolina had been 
connected in a very cumbrous way with North Carolina 
under the same Covernor. South Carolina was now a 
distinct Province, having full control of its own local 
affairs. 



TTNITED STATES. 


Ill 


55. — North Carolina. Albemarle Colony was 
named after Gren. Monk, who on the 8th of May, 1660, 
procured the restoration of Charles II, and was created 
Duke of Albemarle. The Gfrant of land in which it 
stood, covered both Carolinas, North and South, and 
it would be useless to recapitulate the manner in which 
it was obtained. The people who had settled in Vir¬ 
ginia, to the north of the new Grant, pushed their way 
to this point, and established a plantation. They 
selected a governor among themselves, and upon con¬ 
dition that they paid a rental of one cent, per acre to 
the proprietary, they were not disturbed in any respect 
as to their rights and liberties. 

56. — The attempt to introduce the grand model of 
law was a failure in North Carolina, as well as in the 
South, and in both settlements there was much satis¬ 
faction when the claims of the Proprietary ended in 
the establishment of two Royal Provinces. The arbi¬ 
trary conduct of the owners of the soil who had claimed 
authority to tax, to govern and to direct, as well as to 
collect rent and other impositions, had long kept the 
people in a peculiarly watchful and jealous mood. 
The promises made to the people had not been ob¬ 
served, their laws and their officers had been super¬ 
seded, and they had every cause to look with disfavor 
upon the men by whom they had been deceived. 

57. — George Fox, the founder of the . Quakers, 
visited the Carolinas in 1672, while the Locke consti¬ 
tution was under debate, and he found the people very 
well disposed to hear from him the truths of religion ; 
many Quakers were there, and men of all classes who 
had fled from oppression elsewhere ; but none who 
were disposed to submit to the arbitray pretensions of 
the proprietaries. There was relief from manj?- trou¬ 
bles when the colony was constituted a Royal Province 
in 1729. 

.58. — Georgia. George II, the second monarch 
in the Hanoverian line, granted to an English officer 
named Oglethorpe, and to some others, in 1732, the 





112 COUNTEIES OF NOKTH AMERICA. 

tract of land now known as Georgia, being named from 
the king, to be held in trust for settling the colony. 

The territory was at that time in dispute between 
Great Britain and Spain, and Gen. Oglethorpe was 
Commander of forces as well as founder of a colony. 
John Wesley and George Whitfield were associated . 
with him in the work of settlement, and the latter vis- i 
ited the colony very often, intent upon charitable pur¬ 
poses. The first settlement was made at Savannah in 
January, 1733, by Gen. Oglethorpe and 120 persons, 
who were to hold land on the condition of rendering ; 
military service when required, but the requirements 
in that direction were irksome, and great numbers left ' 
the colony for North Carolina. After that time a 
change was made, and every settler was allowed fifty 
acres of land in fee. When wnr was declared by En¬ 
gland against Spain in 1739, Gen. Oglethorpe com¬ 
manded the colonial troops and Indian allies to the 
number of 1,000, but an expedition into Florida, un- 
detaken by him, proved a failure. Charity contributed 
largely to make Georgia a home for the suffering and 
struggling poor in England, but much discontent was 
expressed because negro slavery, which was allowed 
in other states, was expressly prohibited hers, and in 
1752 the trustees surrendered their trust to the Crown, ^ 
and Georgia became a Royal Province until the year ’ 
1776. There were man}^ other limitations in the way 
of paternal legislation, attempted by the trustees during 
their term of authority, such as prescribing the size for 
a farm, forbidding the importation of rum, and declar- ^ 
ing women incompetent to inherit land. Wisdom nat¬ 
urally suggests limitations as to all such matters as 
desirable sometimes, but the people will seldom sub- q 
mit gracefully to such prescriptions from others. It ; 
was proper when land was to be held on terms of 
military service that women should be disqualified, 
but in any other respect the law was an absurdity. 
Georgia was the younger state when the Revolutionary 
War commenced, but she bore her share in the strug- '' 
gle with exemplary courage. 






UNITED STATES. 


113 


^9.—IYars. Under King William IIL 1689-1697. 
Protestantism had been fought for between Holland 
and France for many years before William, Prince of 
Orange, was called to the English throne. That event 
made the war English, and involved the colonies. The 
Iroquois assisted the English settlers, the Indians of 
Canada and Maine gave aid to France. 

^>0. — Indian Atrocities were now combined with 
the strategy and weapons of civilization, and outlying 
settlements in Hew York and New England were ex¬ 
posed to terrible outrages. Some of the scenes de¬ 
scribed are absolutely shocking, and of course the 
I effort on each side was to outstrip the other, once a 
I beginning had been made. It is claimed that the pre- 
1 liminary assault was made by a war party of French 
and Indians from Canada. 

' 61. — Reprisals were made with little delay. Gov. 

> Phipps, of Massachusetts, led an expedition against 
I Port Royal, in Acadia, and was very successful, ob¬ 
taining much plunder. Another enterprise, involving 
a combined attack by sea and land upon Canada, failed 
I utterly. Proceedings dragged on in a desultory way 
! until the King of France, Louis XIV, concluded a 
j peace in 1697, acknowledging the right of William III, 
by treating with him at Ryswick. The territories held 
I at the beginning of the war were not disturbed by the 
treaty. 

62. —Under Queen Anne. 1702-1713. The War 
of the Spanish Succession was entirely European and 
dynastic, as the aim of England was to curb the power 
of France, but it involved the colonies in a resumption 
of hostilities. New York was protected by the neutral¬ 
ity of the Iroquois or Five Nations, but New England 
suffered severely, their frontier line being desolated. 
Outlying settlements were given up, and near to the 
towns people worked with their weapons ready for use. 

63. — The Colonists replied vigorously hy wrest¬ 
ing Port Royal once more from the French, with the 
assistance of English troops, and the place was called 

8 





114 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


Anuapolis as a compliment the Queen. Quebec was 
assailed once more without avail; many vessels were 
lost, and nearly one thousand men* South Carolina 
and Gieorgia made attacks upon the Spanish Fort of 
St. Augustine in Florida, which had become a nest of 
freebooters, but the colonists had no success in that 
quarter. 

64. — Treaty of Utrecht. After eleven years 
fighting, the genius for war possessed by the Duke of 
Marlborough, commander of the English forces, com¬ 
pelled Louis XIY to subscribe a treaty most unfavor¬ 
able to France. Among other concessions Acadia was 
ceded to Great Britain. 

65. — TJnder George II 1744-1748. European 
complications once more involved the colonies, but the 
capture of the fortress of Louisburg, on Cape Breton, 
was the main incident on this side of the Atlantic. 

The capture was effected by English and Colonial 
troops combined; and when peace was concluded by 
the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, France re¬ 
sumed possession of Louisburg. ] 

66. — French and Indian. 1754-1763. Territo¬ 
rial aggression was the purpose aimed at by the 
French, and probably by all parties, in the nine years 
war which commenced in 1754. During the brilliant | 
meteor-like career of John Law in France, the nation | 
had become possessed of the idea that this continent ; 
contained enormous mineral wealth in all parts, and 
consequently the policy then inaugurated still con¬ 
tinued in operation. Territory must be extended J 
wherever possible. The English possessions were not I 
well situated for defense, as they spread over a coast | 
line about one thousand miles long, without facilities | 
for inter-communication and support between the sev- ■ 
eral colonies. The French had cultivated friendly 
relations with the Indians for almost a century since 
the first arrival of the Jesuits on Lake Superior, and i 
that gave them command of an immense area of coun- ^ 


try as well as of very useful allies in such a war as 


V 







UNITED STATES. 


115 


I was now to commence. The intercourse of Fathqr 
INLarqnette with the native tribes was now to become 
I valuable, in a warlike sense, to his countrymen. 
France was not well prepared for a war, but it seems 
to have been anticipated that strategic aggressions 
would pass unheeded, until the troops should be so 
firmly established in their posts that any operation 
against them with the limited force available would be 
fruitless. From Quebec to New Orleans, France had 
possession ; and at many points in the interior there 
were strong positions, such as could hardly be taken 
from them without a regular seige and a considerable 
army. The region west of the Alleghanies, along the 
Ohio, was debatable land, and the right of the strong- 
I est would probably prevail. The o^itrages inflicted 
and endured by both sides during preeeding wars had 
j created intense animosity, and occasions for quarrel 
were daily offered. Surveyors on the Ohio, acting 
under English orders, were seized and detained by 
French troops, and very soon there was hardly one of 
the sixty posts occupied by the enemy, that had not 
some unhappy prisoners of war held in durance with- 
I out authorit\^ The British had established a post one 
the Miami; the French, with a largely superior force,, 
broke it up, although there was peace between the two- 
nations, secured as firmly as anything can be secured' 
by treaties. In reality all that was being done was: 
under orders from head quarters, and at the most 
favorable moment there would be a sufficient force 
ready to follow up any advantage. Additional forts 
had been erected at Presque Isle, near the town of 
Erie, Pa., on French Creek, known as Fort Yenango, 
and twelve miles north of that point, near the site of 
I the town of Waterford, Fort le Boeiif These move- 
ments gave much concern to the colonists. 

67. — George Washington, already a young man 
of parts and promise, was twenty-one years of age 
when Lieut. Gov. Dinwiddie commissioned him to 
visit the forts last mentioned, and request that they 



116 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

should be dismantled. The journey through the wil¬ 
derness from Williamsburg to Lake Erie was full of 
peril, but nothing daunted the young hero. The French 
officers were of course acting under orders, and there 
was no argument but force that would compel them to 
retire. The commandants were polite, hut confident 
that they could hold their own, and there were many 
evidences that expeditions were even then afoot, which 
boded no good to the Colonists. On the return 
through the wilderness, full}^ four hundred miles, the 
horses of Washington and his friend broke down, and 
they were obliged to continue the journey as pedes¬ 
trians, during a very inclement season. An attempt 
on the life of the youthful ambassador only resulted 
in the capture of the skulking Indian ; and a still 
greater peril was encountered by the upsetting of a 
raft on which the two companions were crossing the 
Alleghany river. The reply of St. Pierre, the com¬ 
mandant at Fort le Boeuf, left no room for doubt that 
within a few months at farthest war would be com¬ 
menced by one of the two parties. 

68. — Commencing Hostilities. Early in the 
spring some English traders were driven away by the 
French from the fork of the Monongahela and the 
Alleghany, and a fort was erected at that point. The 
site of Fort Hu Quesne was of such importance that 
even at that moment a Virginian regiment, with Col. 
Frye, commandant, and Washington as his second, 
was on the march to hold the position. Washington, 
with a corps of observation, was despatched to recon¬ 
noitre, the first shot of that long war being fired under 
his orders. Jumonville, a French officer, lying in am¬ 
buscade to surprise and slaughter the Colonial force, 
was taken in the rear and defeated by the young Vir¬ 
ginian. The Colonel commandant dying, Washington 
built a stockade at the Great Meadows, and defended 
Fort Necessity against the French with very great 
odds, until capitulation was inevitable. 

69. — Necessities of the Situation. Virginia 


UNITED STATES. 


117 


and Pennsylvania were menaced by the Indian allies 
of the French as long as Fort Du Quesne remained in 
the hands of its builders, therefore the fort must be 
demolished or occupied by British troops. Louisburg, 
once taken by the Colonists, and abandoned by the 
British, was, in the hands of the French, a perpetual 
source of danger to the Newfoundland fisheries, as pri¬ 
vateering vessels harboring there and in Acadia, 
could commit ravages and escape pursuit under the 
guns of the fort. Quebec strongly fortified gave to 
Canada the St. Lawrence River. The route to Can¬ 
ada by the Lakes Greorge and Champlain was com¬ 
manded by the fortresses at Crown Point and Ticon- 
deroga. The fortress at Crown Point was called Fort 
St. Frederick, and it occupied a very fine position for 
military purposes. After the British procured posses¬ 
sion they spent $10,000,000 on the fortification. To 
take such places out of the hands of the French was 
of primary importance. 

70. — Braddock’s Command. The British Cen- 
eral to whom was committed the task of capturing 
Fort Du Quesne, held bis Indian enemies too cheaply, 
and would not be warned by his aid de camp, George 
Washington. The approach to Du Quesne, in July, 
1755, was signalized by the troops falling into ambus¬ 
cade of Indians, with whose methods of war the regu¬ 
lar soldiers were unfamiliar, and they were terribly 
cut up. Gen. Braddock fell mortally wounded, and 
his command retired in confusion, their retreat being 
covered by the Virginian troops under Washington, 
whose conduct deserves the highest praise. 

71. — Brigadier General Forbes’ Expedition. 
Three years elapsed before the British were again 
ready to move on Fort Du Quesne, this time under 
Gen. Forbes, Col. Washington commanding the Vir¬ 
ginia forces. Braddock lost everything and his own 
life by recklessness. Forbes, a cautious Scotchman, 
spent so much time in making roads for his troops that 
it was near the end of November, 1758, before he came 



118 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

■within fifty miles of the point of attack, and a council 
of war determined to abandon the enterprise. Wash¬ 
ington urged a rapid advance, and led the van himself, 
guarding against all chances of an ambush, so that on 
the 25th of November the fort was abandoned by the 
French, who set fire to the buildings and retreated. 
The Brigadier General named the captured ruin Pitts¬ 
burg, in honor of the first William Pitt, afterwards 
Earl of Chatham, the ablest statesman that had ever 
been Prime Minister in England. The spot which was 
then the key to American security is now the vast en¬ 
trepot of her manufacturing greatness. 

72. — Conquest OF Acadia. There was but litte 
glory in the proceedings of the British troops in this 
expedition, as the people were driven ruthlessly from 
their homes, which they had made no effort to defend, 
and therefore they should have been treated as non- 
combatants. The forts at Fond de la haie^ now ren¬ 
dered Bay of Fundy, were not capable of vigorous de¬ 
fense, and with their fall the whole region east of the 
Penobscot became British. 

73. — Louisburg was the next point to be carried, 
and Gen. Loudoun was to have made the attack in 
1757, but after much preparation he abandoned the 
project and remained at Halifax. Gen. Wolfe and 
Gen. Amherst, afterwards Commander in Chief, cap¬ 
tured the city and fortifications at Louisburg in 1758, 
after a sharp bombardment; but the island was not 
made the rendezvous for the British forces. 

74. — A Fruitless Battle. When Gen. Brad- 
dock was marching to his defeat and death near Fort 
Du Quesne, Maj. Gen. Johnson, in command of the 
provincial forces, approached Crown Point. Baron 
Dieskau, the officer in charge of the French fortress, 
did not wait to be attacked ; he led his forces, with his 
Indian allies, against Gen. Johnson’s camp, and came 
near destroying the whole expedition. The Command¬ 
ant being wounded early in the affray, the conduct of 
the defense fell upon Phineas Lyman, the second in 


UNITED STATES. 


119 


command, and with such men as Israel Putnam in the 
ranks, fighting as private soldiers, it would have been 
difficult to entirely lose the day. Baron Dieskau fell 
mortally wounded. The attacking party was routed 
completely, but there was no attempt on the part of 
the commandant to capture Crown Point. Gen. John¬ 
son was made a baronet, had the thanks of Parliament 
• and $25,000, because of the otherwise barren victory, 
which he did not improve. This action took place in 
September, 1755, and after loitering awhile longer, 
building Fort William Henry, he returned to Albany, 
leaving a small force in charge of the useless fortifica¬ 
tion. This fort was afterwards taken by the French. 

I 75. — Gen. Abercrombie’s Failure. About four 
, months before Fort Du Quesne fell, in November, 

! 1758, Gen. Abercrombie, a British officer, ordered an 

assault upon Ticonderoga, unsupported by artillery, 
and it was noticed that he was conspicuous by his ab¬ 
sence during the fruitless assault. The General was 
properly removed from the command soon afterwards. 
The attack was a disastrous failure. 

I 76. — Overcoming the Difficulty. Gen. Am- 
j herst, with a large army, compelled the evacuation of 
both Ticonderoga and Crown Point by the .French in 
■ 1759, and thus another step was obtained towards 

security for British Colonial America. 

77. — General Shirley was to have captured 
Fort Niagara in 1755, but having reached Oswego 
with his forces, he was discouraged because of the de¬ 
feat of General Braddock, and after building a fort, 
which was afterwards captured by the French General, 
Montcalm, with a quantity of valuable stores, he left 
a garrison, to become prisoners, and returned. Four 
years later, in 1759, General Prideaux compelled Fort 
Niagara to surrender and the west was fully possessed 
by the British and Colonial forces. 

78. — Wolfe and Montcalm. The summer of 
1759 saw two able and brave men pitted against each 
other at Quebec. General Wolfe, with a large naval 





120 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

force and 8,000 troops, arrived off Quebec, designing 
to attack and capture that city and fortress from a 
French force equal to his own, in a strong position, 
commanded by a gallant and entirely competent 
officer, General Montcalm. The city was destroyed 
without difficulty, by bombardment, but the citadel 
on the Heights, beyond the plains of Abraham, seemed 
to defy all possibility of capture. Wolfe, sick in bed, 
revolved many schemes, but none promised success, 
until a careful reconnaissance revealed a narrow path¬ 
way up the precipitous rocks, and by that road he led 
his troops to victory. The shore was guarded by sen¬ 
tinels, but a device prevented a premature alarm and 
the soldiers w^ere on the heights ready for battle before 
daybreak, on the 18th of September, 1759. Mont¬ 
calm was almost paralyzed by the audacity of the as¬ 
sault, but as soon as it became evident that it was an 
attack in force he used all the means at his disposal to 
destroy the assailants. Both commanders fell mor¬ 
tally wounded. Wolfe, thrice struck, died on the field 
of battle, and Montcalm followed him within twelve 
hours. The steady conduct of Wolfe’s troops was in 
marked contrast to the precipitancy of the French sol¬ 
diery on this occasion and a bayonet charge which 
Wolfe proposed to lead in person, decided the contest. 
Quebec garrison and cit\^ capitulated five days after 
the ascent of the heights to the plains of Abraham, 
and this event more than any other contributed to 
bring the war to an end. The pathetic courage and 
skill of General Wolfe, with the devotion of Mont¬ 
calm, divided the admiration of mankind. 

79. — William Pitt’s Policy. The capable and 
bold man who had conducted the war to the point just 
seen was wise enough to be aware that France would 
not lose Canada without a final effort, consequently 
when, in 1760, there was an attempt to recapture Que¬ 
bec, a powerful and well appointed fleet was dis¬ 
patched in time to defeat the movement. Montreal 
was taken and all Canada came under British sway. 


UNITED STATES. 


121 


Spain ceded Florida, and France 'gave np her territo¬ 
ries east of the Mississippi to England, except certain 
small fishing stations south of Newfoundland. New 
Orleans and the country west of the Mississippi, held 
by France, was given to Spain, and Louisiana re¬ 
mained to be dealt with later by Napoleon. 

80. — The Ottawa Chief. Pontiac represented 
better than any other Indian of his time the deep hold 
that the policy of the French had taken upon the 
tribes. The insolence and hauteur of the British 
Officer and troops roused in the Indian nature all that 
was least lovely, while the polite and friendly bearing 
of the Frenchman had made allies in all directions. 
The difference being constitutional, there is no ground 
for wonderment that the same result has been experi¬ 
enced'by all the leading Frenchmen from Father Mar¬ 
quette and the Baron La Salle to Moncalm dying at 
Quebec. Soon after the French forts were surrendered 
to the English, Pontiac, chief of the Ottawas, an able 
and very treacherous man, proposed to the several 
tribes a combination against the enemy, so that they 
being taken unawares, might be despoiled of all their 
possessions. Many forts were carried by sudden assaults 
and other devices. Detroit was to have been the 
grand stroke, and Pontiac presided there in person, 
but the night before the attack an Indian squaw to 
whom the Governor had been kind revealed the con¬ 
spiracy. Pontiac and his braves were to wait upon 
the Governor as a delegation, apparently unarmed, 
but really with their muskets shortened for the pur¬ 
pose hidden under their mantles. The chief was to 
make a complimentary speech, and at its conclusion 
offer a belt indicative of friendship to the doomed 
officer, but the manner differing from the customary 
method was to be a signal for the warriors to carry out 
their scheme of slaughter, by killing the Governor 
and his household first, and then proceeding to the de¬ 
molition of the settlement. The delegation was re¬ 
ceived, but every man surrounding the Governor was 




122 


COUKTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


armed ostentatiously, and while Pontiac was speaking, 
the soldiers on guard in the ante-room were heard 
handling their w^eapons so that the wary Indian was 
afraid to carry out his design. The belt was presented 
to the Governor in the manner indicating peace and 
the design was frustrated. The Governor in reply ac¬ 
cused the Indians of treachery, and when they protest¬ 
ed that he had been deceived, he pulled aside their 
dresses showing their concealed wmapons in confirma¬ 
tion of his statements. Seeing that they held a safe 
conduct, he permitted them to escape, but the Indians 
foiled in their immediate scheme regularly besieged 
the city and the attempt only failed because the allied 
tribes lost confidence in their leader. Their schemes 
were successful in eight cases, and their victims were 
destroyed without mercy. Besides the forts -taken, 
many settlements were ravaged, but eventually Pontiac 
still intent on vengeance w^as stabbed by an Indian 
who wished to end the series of disasters that he was 
bringing upon the tribes. The war ended with a 
treaty in which nearly all the Indians concurred. 

si. Consequences of Training. While these 
wars lasted the colonies hitherto divided by distance, 
and in some degree by petty jealousies, learned to 
know and to respect each other, so that although 
thirty thousand men were lost in the several conflicts 
and consequences, the force that remained was stronger 
in proportion and more ready for the work that must 
be done. The cost of the several undertakings had 
aggregated about $16,000,000 and only about $5,000,- 
000 of that sum was paid back by Great Britain, still 
the balance w^as taken in training and the money was 
well spent. Many who might have been first class tories, 
but for experience, were completely cured by contact 
wuth British officers who looked superciliously upon 
every man however brave unless he had the manners 
and angularities of the regularly trained military man. 
The colonists learned their strength all the better for 
having fought side by side with the regulars, and they 


UNITED STATES. 


123 


had acquired a taste for liberty which might easily be 
induced to take a wider range than a mere change 
from the rule of France or Spain to the rule of another 
foreign country. Many young officers, who had come 
through the wars with credit to themselves and with 
advantage to tlie country, had found their greatest ad¬ 
vantage for all patriotic purposes in the fact that they 
had become weaned from a sentimental loyalty which 
misled others in the day of trial. Such men as Wash¬ 
ington, Gates, Putnam, and others such as they were 
in spirit, had been so often compelled by their patriot¬ 
ism to endure annoyances from the British Forces, 
that even while they suffered, they grew strong for 
the greater work toward which they were progressing. 
M idle the war lasted they wxre content to pay taxes 
levied by their ovv^n democratic assemblies, but once 
that struggle had ended, they were more than ever de¬ 
termined to act upon the principle that taxation with¬ 
out representation is tyranny. 

82. — Eeviewing the Situation. There was 
leisure after the war, for men to consider the circum¬ 
stances in which they stood. There was no longer an 
enemy at their doors stirring the worst blood of the 
Indians to spoliation and rapine, and the animosities 

I which had separated the different nationalities from 

I each other were gradually sinking to rest. Men 

i w^ere becoming neither British, French, Swedes nor 

I Dutch, but American, and in that sentiment there was 

I true patriotism^ The colonies, thirteen in all, num¬ 

bered little short of two millions at the close of Pon- 
! tiac’s war, and there was but a small remnant of the 

i religious rancour which at one time stirred souls 

against each other, so that there was more room for the 
consideration of the claims of all mankind to equal 
justice in matters social and political, 

83. — Learning commenced to take root in the soil 
of America from the first landing in December, 1620, 
at Forefathers Pock, as the people were deeply im¬ 
pressed with the value of their sacred literature, and nine 





124 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

colleges, besides numerous schools, bad been alread}/" 
established in the colonies, the endowment for Har¬ 
vard from the funds of the colonists commencing when 
the New England settlement was only sixteen years 
old. Such institutions were due to the people them¬ 
selves in every instance save that of one college. 
Consequent upon a love for learning and zeal for the 
instruction of the community, came an early demand 
for the labors of the printing press, which in the year, 
1639 was brought into operation in Cambridge, and 
upon the accession of King James IT, was especially 
interdicted by Royal proclamation. Most of the books 
published then were theological effusions, chiefly ser¬ 
mons, but in 1690, the first newspaper appeared in 
Boston, bearing date Thursday, September 25. The 
first number of “ Pahlick Occurences ” contained so 
many sound truths, that the government censured 
Benjamin Harris and suppressed the issue after only 
one paper had been circulated. “ The “ News Letter ” 
was published in Boston in 1704, and among some 
others, the best paper of those early days, the “New 
England Courant^^ published by James Franklin, and 
written for by the compositor, his brother, Benjamin 
Franklin, came into existence in 1721, in the same 
town. The number did not very rapidly increase, but 
the influence of journalism was felt extensively. Be¬ 
sides the library at H.arvard, and some small begin¬ 
nings in other colleges, there was a public circulating 
library in New York. The first action for libel tried 
in the colonies was an attempt to suppress the New 
York Weekly Journal, in 1735, but the effort was de¬ 
feated by the jury. There was no newspaper in Vir¬ 
ginia until 1736, and then it was a government organ.i 
84. — Industries and Manufactures were identi-' 
fied with the commencement- of the New Eng¬ 
land Colonies, and even in Virginia, where such em¬ 
ployments were less kindly embraced, necessity com¬ 
pelled the settlers to work or starve. Agriculture^ 
commanded first attention, and even the Indians' 


UNITED STATES. 


125 


learned something in that direction, as one of the tribes, 
having procured a supply of powder, planted it as seed, 
expecting to reap a harvest of ammunition. Some 
kinds of manufactures rudely carried on were prose¬ 
cuted from the beginning of the colonies, and in Bos¬ 
ton, shipbuilding dates from the first year. Cloths 
and cloth weaving, shoes, paper, hats, farming imple¬ 
ments, furniture and cutleryx were manufactured, al¬ 
though there was a long series of complaints that Eng¬ 
lish manufactures were injured by such action. Com¬ 
merce was crippled by the operation of the English 
Navigation Laws, which were supplemented by regu¬ 
lations under which it was provided that the produc¬ 
tions of the colonies must be shipped to England in 
British vessels only, and that no manufactures nor 
supplies of any kind should be sent into any colonial 
port except through the intervention of English ves¬ 
sels, sailing from the ports of that country. These re¬ 
strictions were not rigorously observed by the colo¬ 
nists, but wherever the government was strong enough 
the system was enforced. Besides these important in¬ 
dustries, the fisheries off Newfoundland were improved 
as far as possible, and whaling enterprises to the far 
north were also undertaken. 

85. — Travel and Traffic between the colonies come 
next in importance to industries and intellectual cul¬ 
ture, and are identified with each. For a long time 
journeys were made on foot, on horseback or by means 
of coasting sloops. From New York to Philadelphia 
was a three days’ trip with fair winds, and a wagon 
ran twice a week between New York and different 
localities in New Jersey. It was an immense improve¬ 
ment when conveyances, called “flying machines” for 
their speed, in 1766, made the journey from Phila¬ 
delphia to New York in two days, and a stage route 
from Providence to Boston occupied the same time. 
The postoffice had been inaugurated and its influence 
was so highly appreciated, that Franklin, when Post¬ 
master General, occupied five months in his carriage, 







126 


COUNTKIES OF NOETH AMERICA. 


traveling through the colonies to perfect the arrange¬ 
ments of his department, and he took an extra horse 
with him for occasional service. The monthly mail was 
commenced in 1672, between Boston and New York 
by way of Hartford, Connecticut. 

86. — Sumptuary laws and customs reveal the life 
of a people, and New England lived by line and rule. 
Scriptural teaching was the standard of conduct, min¬ 
isters were the recognized censors, and were them¬ 
selves above reproach for some time. Cards and games, 
were prohibited, sabbath breaking was an offense, and 
a man who shot some birds on Sunday was whipped. 
Tavern keeping was strictly under surveilliance, and 
drunkards could not buy liquor. Connecticut forbade 
tobacco to youths under twenty, nor could any one 
indulge more than once in twenty-four hours, and he 
must then be distant from any residence. The cloth¬ 
ing to be worn by the different classes was regulated 
in regard to their wealth and condition. Grand dames 
rode pillion with their husbands, theological questions 
were engrossing topics, and a reproof in church was 
the ultimatum of social severity. The manners of 
New York closely approximated in simplicity to those 
of New England plus a trifle more of sociality which 
remains crvstallized in the custom of new year’s visit- 
ings. 

87. — The plantations in the southern eolonies, 
wherein large estates and numerous servants, often 
negro slaves, made the rule, had an efifeet in ehanging 
the manners of the people. The negroes had their own 
quarters and were kindly treated generally. Tobacco 
was the staple production, and the planter made his 
own establishment serve every purpose. He shipped 
his own tobacco to agents in London, ground his own 
flour from corn and wheat, raised by his slaves, his 
bondsmen were taught such trades as he required in 
operation, luxury was the rule among such men, 
labor fell more and more daily into disrepute, hospi¬ 
tality was the rule everywhere, and display became 


UNITED STATES. 


127 


the fashion in dress, furniture and equipages, stamping 
characteristics upon a people which may yet be seen 
in action. 

88. — Schools and teachers were obliged to labor 
under difficulties in the southern colonies, as the 
governors appointed from England were opposed to 
such innovations upon the rule of ignorance, especially 
for the working class. Free schools were denounced 
in connection with printing presses by Gov. Berkeley 
in Virginia with great emphasis, but in Maryland, 
under the rule of the Baltimore family, there were 
free schools in 1696, and in 1712, Charleston, South 
Carolina, followed that example. Private schools 
wmre more generally established, and church rule was 
ample for all purposes. The minister had a farm of 
one hundred acres and a share in the best corn and 
tobacco first gathered. Nonattendence at church, or 
disrespectful words to the minister, were offenses pun¬ 
ished among the slaves by whipping and deprivation 
of food, with cumulative sentences of terrible import. 
Even freemen were held under heavy restrictions in 
many parts, fines being substituted for corporal pun¬ 
ishments. Slave owners in Georgia were liable to a 
penalty of $25 if they failed to send their slaves to 
church. 

89. — Massachusetts and Connecticut esteemed 
education next to religion itself, and with the colonists 
life was a worthless burden unless sanctified by wor¬ 
ship. The endowment of Harvard University, then 
known as a seminary at Cambridge, by the town of 
Boston, when the settlement was only six years old, 
tells its own story, unsurpassed in the world’s history. 
The invested funds of the institution, besides the 
grounds, buildings, libraries and other property, 
amounted in 1878 to $2,750,000. Since 1642, there 
have only been five years without a graduating class; 
nearly 13,000 persons have received degrees there, and 
fully half that number are now alive. The people at 
one time when money was scarce, contributed from 



128 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


each family a peck of corn, or one shilling, towards 
the college. Education was provided for every age; 
in 1665, every town had a free school, and every con¬ 
siderable town a grammar school; besides which, there 
were town meetings for general discussions, which 
every freeman was expected to attend. In Hartford, 
Conn., those who failed to be present, unless excused, 
were fined. Yale College was founded in Connecticut 
in 1700, being first established at Saybrook, and the 
library afterwards removed to Hew Haven. 

90. — Hew York, Delaware and Pennsylvania 
were not behind the other colonies in solicitude for 
early training. The countrymen of Erasmus loved 
books, and there were many schools in Hew York in 
which English was reckoned among the accomplish¬ 
ments. Princeton College had made an excellent 
start, and in 1768 had an Orrery to teach as to the 
movements of the heavenl}^ bodies, such as no Eu¬ 
ropean College could then excel. Among the Quak¬ 
ers and other nonconformists at Lewiston, Del., the 
first Colonial School for girls had its origin; and 
among men of the same class in Pennsylvania in 1683, 
before Penn returned to England, a Commercial 
School was inaugurated, the fees being two dollars per 
annum. Before the arrival of the founder of that 
colony, the Swedes had places of worship, and every 
denomination made provision in its own way for 
preachers and meetings. Wampum, beaver skins, and 
sometimes tobacco, served as currency for the payment 
of the salary of minister or teacher, but in no case was 
it known that the colonists omitted to provide fairly 
for education and worship. 

91. — Spirit of the Age. The newspaper press 
generally confined itself to local matters and news 
until about and after 1745. Such men as the Frank¬ 
lins, and Zenger who was tried for libel at the instance 
of the government, were rare exceptions; but after 
1745, revolutionary ideas began to find utterance. 
Samuel Adams became a journalist in Boston in 1748, 


UNITED STATES. 


129 


but the printer having been imprisoned, the publica¬ 
tion was suspended. The “ Boston Gazette,” which 
came out in 1755, plainly indicated the desire of the 
colonists to be left untrammeled by Great Britain. 
Samuel Adams and John Adams, Mayhew, Otis, War¬ 
ren, Cushing, Dexter, Austin, Cooper, and others of 
that stamp, fought every abuse through its columns. 
This marked a new era in the value of the press, and 
the spirit thus indicated compelled the British Gov¬ 
ernment to repeal, in 1766, the odious stamp act which 
had become law in March, 1765. The tyrannous 
designs of George III, and the fatal subserviency of 
his ministers, could not rest at that point, the King 
being resolved that he would compel the colonists 
to pay taxes to the mother country; and, in 1767, the 
duties on tea, paper, glass, and on other commodities, 
having been imposed, the battle of public opinion con¬ 
tinued with increasing vigor. The duties could not 
be collected, and, in 1768, British troops were sent to 
Boston, but notwithstanding every endeavor, the du¬ 
ties were afterwards abolished by the British Parlia¬ 
ment. Exasperation had become almost unbounded ; 
many of the newspapers suggested an appeal to arms 
as a means of redress against the oppressions of gov¬ 
ernors and troops, and the years 1773^ were signal¬ 
ized by momentous events. The Tea Riot in Boston 
took place in the year first named, and the latter year 
saw assembled in Philadelphia, on the 5th of Septem¬ 
ber, the first “Continental Congress.” The Boston 
Port Bill was the immediate cause of that Congress, 
the declaration of rights its first outcome, and proxi- 
mately the Independence of this Nation is due to those 
events. 

X. THE REVOLUTION. 

After the Continental Congress, 1114, to the Declaration of In- 
dependencc, 1110. 

1.— The Beginning of the End. Growing ex¬ 
asperation on both sides left but little hope that there 
would be a peaceful end of Colonial difficultiCvS, after 
9 




130 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

the Declaration of Rights had been adopted, although 
there were many parliamentary precedents for such 
action on the part of English subjects; but'unfortu¬ 
nately George III was more nearly absolute than any 
king had ever been in England, since the beginning of 
the reign of Henry VIIT, and his hatred of America 
already verged upon insanity. 

2. — Oppressive enactments crippled every branch 
of trade, in the hope that the depletion of the Colo¬ 
nies would enrich the mercantile, manufacturing and 
shipping interests of the mother country. The navi¬ 
gation laws were not stringent enough to secure the 
desired ends and there were additional restrictions 
which were gradually narrowing the industries of the 
Colonists to a point, at which they must have become 
agriculturists only, without permission to sell their 
products anywhere, except in England, taking therefor 
such wares as manufacturers in that country would 
send, at any prices they thought fit. The yoke was 
unbearable. The small beginnings of that iron indus¬ 
try, on which modern nations must base their civiliza¬ 
tion, were common nuisances in this country in the 
sight of English lawmakers, and all manufactures were 
prohibited. Edmund Burke and the Great William 
Pitt, now become Earl of Chatham, manfully upheld 
the cause of the Colonists, one in the House of Com¬ 
mons and the other in the House of Lords, but noth¬ 
ing availed as against the will of the king. 

3. — The Retrospect of the Age shows an accumu 
lation of wrongs under which patience would have 
been a crime. Every pretext was availed of in some 
districts to annoy men in their homes and business, 
unless they were known to be subservient to the au 
thorities. King’s officers could enter any residence, or 
store, under warrants known as “ writs of assistance,” 
to search for smuggled goods. This power was used 
to an extent that almost seems incredible, but perhaps 
some of the officials were desirous to be bought off. 

4. — The Stamp Act had been repealed, but not 


UNITED STATES. 


131 


before it had worked a terrible state of feeling among 
the Colonists. Newspapers, documents to have force 
in law, and pi-inted pamphlets as well as other matters 
which it would be tedious to particularize had to bear 
a government stamp before publication, and many 
newspapers just struggling to live were compelled to 
suspend while the act remained in force. The Colo¬ 
nists met the attack with a peculiar energy. When it 
became known that a man had accepted office as the 
British Stamp Agent, he was visited by a delegation 
in many instances, and so completely overawed that 
he forthwith resigned his office, tlouses were at¬ 
tacked, supporters of the exaction were burned in 
effigy, and stamps were destroyed whenever a capture 
was made. Associations were formed, pledged to 
wear no clothes but such as could be produced in the 
Colonies, nor to consume any article of English man¬ 
ufacture. “ Sons of Liberty ” were enrolled in all the 
colonies, and in some the organization was very pow¬ 
erful. The aspect of the people, no less than the elo¬ 
quence of their leaders, gave evidence that the system 
would not be endured, but when the parliament, much 
to the disgust of the king, receded from their enact¬ 
ment they yet affirmed their right to tax the unrepre¬ 
sented Colonies. 

5. — Board of Trade. Boston had earned already^ 
a leading place among the leaders, and, in conse¬ 
quence, when the British Government proceeded to- 
the next act of taxation, a Board of Trade to sit in 
Boston was nominated, having authority above all 
colonial assemblies. The tolling bells, days of mourn¬ 
ing, minute guns, suspended business and other signs 
of determination which, by moral force mainly, had 
rendered the stamp act inoperative, were now to be 
treated with disdain, and troops were sent to enforce 
the laws. The mutiny act would have compelled the 
colonists to give quarters and food to the soldiery, but, 
one after another, the colonies, by their i^epresentative 
assemblies, refused obedience. New York led the van 







182 


COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


in such vindication of the rights of the people, and 
the assembly was immediately disfranchised. Massa¬ 
chusetts backed up New York by sending an appeal 
to the other colonies, inviting union, and nearly all the 
colonies asserted that taxation without representation 
meant tyranny. Parliament in vain called upon the 
people to abandon the position, from which no show of 
right could dislodge them. 

6. — Gen. Gage, the last Governor of Massachusetts 
appointed by George III, had, previous to 1774, vis¬ 
ited Boston, being chosen by the government to en¬ 
force the odious provisions of the mutiny act. The 
struggle seemed to be as of Boston against all Eng¬ 
land, and Samuel Adams was Boston. Gen. Gage 
came with his troops, marching to martial music, with 
colors flying, through Boston streets one Sunday 
morning. Demanding quarters, and being refused, he 
took possession of Boston State House. Boston Com¬ 
mon was made into a military camp, cannon were 
planted to command the town, and everything indi¬ 
cated a state of war. Quarrels were common between 
the younger citizens and the soldiery, and, during one 
of these encounters with the City Guard, two young 
men were badly wounded and three killed. This 
event, known as the Boston massacre, was the signal 
for a general rallying of the colonists of Massachu¬ 
setts, and it was thought best that the soldiery should 
retreat to Castle William until the effervescence 
subsided. The soldiers engaged in the melee were 
tried for murder, but John Adams and Josiah Quincy 
defended them, and all save two were acquitted; the 
two being convicted of manslaughter only. 

7. — Faneuil Hall was crowded during the evening 
of December 16, 1773, by men who were determined 
that the obnoxious tea duty should never be collected 
in America. There were three ships in the harbor 
laden with tea, and the agents were willing to send it 
back to England, but the British authorities refused 
to grant permission for the departure of the vessels. 


UNITED STATES. 


133 


All the duties except that on tea had been abandoned, 
but that impost was insisted upon to affirm a right. 
English traders were now so anxious for peace, that 
they reduced the price of the commodity so that the 
tea delivered in Boston, inclusive of duty, would cost 
less than it liad ever cost the people before; but it 
was a question of principle, not of price. From other 
ports the tea was only returned, and the same course 
was to have been pursued at Boston but for the stub¬ 
born refusal of the officials to grant clearances for the 
ships. The conclusion was only made known that 
night, and the Boston Tea Party, disguised as Indians, 
boarded the ships, emptying 342 chests of tea into the 
harbor. There was no attempt to conceal the fact 
that the Indian costume was only a disguise, as one of 
the party conversed with Admiral Montague on the 
subject, immediately after the operation had been ef¬ 
fected, and before his war paint had been removed. 

8. — The new Governor of Massachusetts came to 
Boston, May 17, 1774, as the English government 
thought Gen. Gage precisely the man to carry out 
their scheme of vengeance against the headquarters of 
the rebellion. Boston port had been shut against all 
commerce by act of Parliament, and much distress 
was being experienced. Virginia, by its assembly, 
denounced this act of oppression, and was immediately 
dismissed by the Royalist Governor. The popular side 
in the struggle took the name of Whig and the oppo¬ 
sition set were Tories. Minute men were enrolled, 
ready to assemble and fight for the cause at one min¬ 
ute’s w^arning. The Governor, alarmed, commenced 
the fortification of Boston Neck, and it became more 
evident every day that there would be a war and a 
Continental Union. 

9. — CoNGKESS IN Philadelphia. Under such 
auspices the first Continental Congress assembled in 
the City of Brotherly Love, and every colony was rep¬ 
resented except Georgia, the youngest of the thirteen. 
Independence in the broader sense was yet only the 






134 COUNTEIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

dream of a few. The Congress denounced the pres¬ 
ence of a standing army; sustained Massachusetts in 
its resistance, disclaimed the recent acts of the English 
government, and resolved fo hold no intercourse with 
the mother country. The rights of the colonists were 
to be upheld, but the men forming the Congress be¬ 
lieved that so much could be affected without break¬ 
ing the connection. 

10 . — First Bloodshed. The Governor of Massa¬ 
chusetts, having ascertained that there were military 
stores at Concord, belonging to the people, concluded 
that he would procure them for his own use or destroy 
them, and an expedition of eight hundred men, under 
Col. Smith, was detailed April 19, 1775, for that pur¬ 
pose. The people started off messengers to rouse the 
minute men, and a signal lantern on the steeple of 
North Church called assistance from considerable dis¬ 
tances. Lexington was one of the rallying points of 
the colonial forces, and when the Britishers arrived 
there they found almost a company of minute men as¬ 
sembled on the village green. Maj. Pitcairn, second 
in command of the Royalists, ordered the people to 
disperse, and upon their declining to do so, a battle 
ensued, in which seven of the Americans were killed. 
The troops pushed on to Concord and the stores were 
hastily destroyed, as it had now become evident that 
the retreat to Boston must be conducted through a 
country swarming with minute men, impatient to 
avenge the blood spilt at Lexington. Every point 
that could give shelter to a marksman, trees, rocks, 
buildings, fences, inequalities of surface, were all 
turned to good purpose by the Colonial troops, and 
three hundred redcoats fell before the remainder were 
rescued by reinforcements from Boston. The war had 
commenced, and as the news, carried by swift messen¬ 
gers, coursed through the land, men left their work in 
the fields unfinished to hurry to the scene of conflict. 
Israel Putnam, an incorruptible brave man, was one 
of the earliest recruits, and he was in Boston almost as 


UNITED STATES. 


135 


soon as the retreating regulars, leaving his cattle yoked 
in the field. There was no longer a vestige of author¬ 
ity in the hands of British Governors from Massachu¬ 
setts to Georgia, further than their troops could compel 
obedience. Twenty thousand men worked at the in- 
trenchments that were to shut up Gen. Gage and his 
forces in Boston. Congresses were formed instanter 
in all the colonies, to consider the situation, and com¬ 
mittees were duly authorized to call out the troops 
should emergencies arise. Gov. Gage had commenced 
a war which he did not live to see fought out to its 
glorious result. 

11. — Bunker Hill. The Colonists were deter¬ 
mined to see the matter to an end, or perish in the at¬ 
tempt, and Col. Prescott was chosen to command in 
the first regular engagement. The President of Har¬ 
vard prayed at the head of the troops before they 
started from Cambridge to fortify Bunker Hill, and 
they worked through the bright moonlight until morn¬ 
ing, when their earthworks were completed. They 
had preferred Breed’s Hill for their fortification, as 
they found it more commanding, and so silent had been 
their labors, although within hail of the sentinels in Bos¬ 
ton, that the British troops knew nothing of their pro¬ 
ceedings until they saw the redoubt fully constructed 
June 17,1775. Sir William Howe commanded an at¬ 
tack, and three thousand men ascended the hill to within 
ten rods of the redoubt without being molested. The 
Colonel had given orders that the defenders should not 
fire until they could see the whites of their opponents’ 
eyes, and they were soldierly enough to obey his orders. 
At the proper moment the word “Fire” was heard, 
and consentaneously every rifle vomited forth its mes¬ 
senger of death. The redcoats, immovable as a wall 
one second before, had fallen in their ranks or were 
in rapid retreat when the smoke lifted. They had 
anticipated nothing so terrible as that act of slaughter. 
The village of Charlestown, set on fire by Gov. Gage, 
was the rallying point of the regulars, and having re- 




186 


COUNTETES OF NOETH AMEEICA. 


formed there, the troops once more breasted the hill. 
The deadly volley met them as before, and they were 
compelled a second time to retire; this time so shat¬ 
tered that they could not renew the attack without re¬ 
inforcements. Had the patriots possessed a sufficiency 
of ammunition the‘whole force under Howe’s command 
would have been insufficient to dispossess them, but 
their weakness consisted in that lacking. When the 
third assault was made there was only powder and ball 
sufficient for one volley, but that was delivered with 
emphasis and terrible effect. The British troops 
paused for a moment, and then finding no repetition 
of the sanguinary salute, charged over the earthworks 
at the point of the bayonet, and the patriots, having 
no weapons but their clubbed muskets, were compelled 
reluctantly to retire from the scene on which they had 
already immortalized the name, American. Twice the 
British had come in contact with the continentals, 
whom they professed to despise, and although on each 
occasion they had won a nominal success, the prestige 
of victory had remained with the patriots. Before 
this engagement, and after the battle of Lexinton, the 
Provincial Congress of Massachusetts had, in May, 
1775, declared Hen. Gage unworthy of obedience, and 
he had responded in June by a proclamation offering 
pardon to all rebels, except Samuel Adams and John 
Hancock. The same document established martial, 
law. Four months after the battle of Bunker Hill, 
Gen. Gage was relieved of his office by Sir William 
Howe, and returned to England, where he died within 
two years. 

12. — Ethan Allen. Within one month of the 
Battle of Lexington, the fortress of Ticonderoga, so 
often assaulted in vain by regulars and volunteers 
combined, was surprised and captured by a body of 
volunteers under Col. Ethan Allen and the afterwards 
infamous Benedict Arnold. The commander was in 
bed when Allen demanded his surrender, and there 
was nothing possible in the way of resistance. The 


UNITED STATES. 


187 


officer demanded in whose name the force of Green 
Mountain Boys had made the demand, and Col. Allen 
I replied: “In the name of the Great Jehovah and the 
I Continental Congress.” ' Crown Point was captured 
soon afterwards, and the Continental forces were thus 
made masters of large cannon, small arms and ammu¬ 
nition. There was not one life lost in the expedition. 

13. —Gen. Washington. The second Continental 
Congress assembled at Philadelphia on the day of the 
capture of Ticonderoga, May 10, 1775, and it was con¬ 
cluded that twenty thousand men should be raised for 
the war, to serve under the orders of Gen. Washington, 
Commander-in-chief. A petition to the King was 
adopted at the same time, but George III refused to 
receive the document. The Commander-in-chief pro¬ 
ceeded to the camp before Boston, and there found 
about 14,000 men, ill clad and worse armed, many of 
them unfit for the service which they had taken up on 
the impulse of the moment, and of which they were 
1 already heartily sick. Yery few knew anything about 
drill or discipline, and there, were only nine cartridges 
per man in the magazine with which the War of Inde¬ 
pendence was to be fought. Gen. Washington did all 
that could be done under the circumstances, and Gen. 
Gage remained enclosed in Boston. 

I 14. — Invasion of Canada. In the autumn of 

i 1775, Gen. Montgomery led a force by the way of Lake 
I Champlain now open to the operations of the colonists, 

I took St. Johns and Montreal, appearing before Quebec 
' in December, where he was joined by a band of men 
almost famished, led by Gen. Arnold. The new com¬ 
ers had ascended the Kennebec and made a road 
through the wilderness to the point of attack. The 
two forces joined were less than one thousand effect¬ 
ives ; but with this small body a siege was maintained 
for three weeks, until an assault was thought practica¬ 
ble, and in a blinding storm of snow the forlorn hope 
advanced by two divisions, one led by Gen. Montgom¬ 
ery, the other by Benedict Arnold. Unfortunately the 






188 COUNTKIES OF NOETH AMERICA. 

chief in command fell mortally wounded, and yet more 
unfortunately, Arnold fell wounded, but not mortally, 
as he survived to tarnish a name which might have 
been saved from disgrace by an early death. Gren. 
Morgan who .succeeded Arnold in the command, was 
hemmed in on all sides and compelled to surrender; 
and the little army, after maintaining a blockade of the 
city until spring, retreated on the approach of British 
troops, to reinforce the garrison. 

15. — Continental Successes. Gen. AVashing- 
ton steadily pursued his purpose all through the win¬ 
ter of 1775-76, to bring his army into form and to 
compel the British to evacuate Boston. Dorchester 
Heights were fortified during the night of March 17, 
1776, and in the morning the troops in the city saw an 
opportunitj’ to repeat the experience of Breeds Hill; 
but a storm prevented action at once, and every hour 
of delay made the earthworks more complete. Gen. 
Howe saw the necessity for an instant retirement with 
his army and fleet before worse happened, and many 
of the tories accompanied him. Boston was thus re¬ 
lieved from the insolent oppression which had been 
endured for eleven months, and the Commander-in- 
chief was received with much joy, as an earnest of the 
triumph which few doubted would be achieved for the 
colonies. 

16. — Admiral Parker, with a British fleet of nine 
sail and 270 guns, appeared off Charleston Harbor, 
June 28, 1776, and finding a fort of Palmetto logs on 
Sullivan’s Island, with earthworks carrying 26 guns, 
the Admiral bombarded the fortification. Col. Wil¬ 
liam Moultrie who was in command of the fort used 
his forces so well, that although Gen. Clinton with a 
considerable body of troops cooperated with the naval 
contingent and tried an attack in the rear, the assail¬ 
ants were beaten off with considerable loss. This glo¬ 
rious exploit was commemorated in the best possible 
way by naming the position Fort Moultrie, and 
strengthening the works. The report of this victory 


UNITED STATES. 139 

was well received all over the colonies, and it came 
opportunely. 

17 . — The Great Declaration. While Boston 
was being abandoned by the British troops, and in the 
south the naval arm o-f Britain was sustaining a defeat. 
Congress had been deeply pondering the problem 
which demanded solution; and on the 3d of July, 
1776, by a majority of one Colony, a resolution, intro¬ 
duced by Eichard Henry Lee, of Virginia, was carried, 
affirming that: “The United Colonies are and ought 
to be free and independent States.”. Thomas Jeffer¬ 
son, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Eoger Sher¬ 
man and Eobert B. Livingston, were appointed to 
draw up “ The Declaration of Independence,” and at 
two in the morning of the eventful Fourth of July, 
the great charter of the liberties of a nation of free¬ 
men was ratified by Congress, the report of the com¬ 
mittee being adopted. The people of Philadelphia 
had been intensely anxious all the day as to the out¬ 
come of the debate, and when the news was at length 
promulgated, the bell in the steeple of the old State 
House joyfully rang out the tidings, which the people 
reechoed in all directions. The old bell is now pre¬ 
served as a curiosity, bearing the prophetic motto: 
“Proclaim liberty throughout all the land,'to all the 
people thereof.” 

XI. THE AMERICAN NATION. 

From the Great Declaration, 1770, to the Constitution of the United 
States, 17 S7. 

1 . — The War of Independence. Signing the 
Declaration of Independence was an act which left 
for the men who had taken that step no retreat. 
They must conquer the liberty towards wdiich they 
aspired or sink under the punishment awarded to reb¬ 
els, by a King such as George III w^as known to be. 
The men who had already drawn the sword could well 
afford to throw away the scabbard, and as the event 
proved, the liberties of the people were in good hands. 

2. — Gen. Washington, with seven thousand men fit 





140 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

for service, turned his attention toward New York as 
soon as Boston had been freed, and he was correct in 
his anticipations that the British Commander in Chief 
would make a descent in that quarter. Gen. Howe 
proceeded from Boston to Halifax where he refitted, 
and then sailed for New York. His brother, Admiral 
Lord Howe, joined him there with a fleet and rein¬ 
forcements, which when joined to the troops com¬ 
manded by Gen. Sir Harry Clinton, gave an army of 
80,000 men. The government had sent by the Admi¬ 
ral powers to treat with the Americans, but they were 
to be dealt with as revolted Colonists, not as a free 
and independent people. An officer was sent to the 
American camp with a letter addressed to George 
Washingtcn, Esquire, but the Commander in Chief of 
the armies of the United States refused-to receive a 
communication which failed to recognize his office and 
rank, and the m.essenger after many attempts to over¬ 
come the difficulty carried back the letter. 

3,—The first defeat sustained by the American 
troops occurred on Long Island, where Gen. Putnam 
with nine thousand men held a fort and defenses on 
the hills south of Brooklyn. The enemy advanced in 
three divisions, one of which unobserved turned the 
flank of the defenders and assailed them in the rear. 
Our troops, although outnumbered, were fighting 
bravely when the sound of firing from the third divis¬ 
ion of the attacking force told the Patriots that they 
were surrounded. The carnage was terrific, as of the 
5,000 men engaged, 2,000 were slain, or taken prison¬ 
ers, to endure a fate almost worse than death. The 
fort at Brooklyn was not attacked immediately, as the 
fleet was required to cooperate in the assault, and a 
delay of two days gave our troops an opportunity to 
retreat. During the nigiit of the escape, a negro ser¬ 
vant, sent by a Tory to inform the British of the 
movement, was captured by Hessian troops — hired 
from Hesse Casscl for the war — and they unable to 
comprehend his message detained him until the morn- 


UNITED STATES. 141 

ing, SO that Putnam withdrew his troops without fur¬ 
ther loss. 

4. — Strategic Movements were now the order of 
the day, as the enemy well furnished with all the mu¬ 
nitions of war, and much more numerous than our 
troops, could not be assailed with safety. Gen. Wash¬ 
ington had taken up a strong position on Harlem 
Heights, and the British commander in chief did not 
dare an attack, but the movements of the enemy obliged 
Washington to withdraw to White Plains, where part 
of his army was defeated; with the remainder he occu¬ 
pied a strong camp at Horth Castle, and Howe pru¬ 
dently retired to New York, Fort Washington, which 
stood where 181st and 186th streets now are, was taken 
by the Hessians, Nov. 16, 1776, after a very obstinate 
defense, with 2,600 prisoners. Our army, small from 
the first, was now hardly 3,000 strong, and it was 
necessary to retreat into New Jersey to resist a march 
on Philadelphia. Lord Cornwallis, with 6,000 troops 
in good condition, followed the shoeless ranks of the 
Army of Independence for three weeks, until Wash¬ 
ington crossed the Delaware into Pennsylvania. Gen. 
Lee, who was slowly following the commander in chief, 
was taken prisoner by the enemy during this retreat. 
The boats on the Delaware had been secured by the 
Patriots, and Gen. Howe concluded that he would cross 
that river on the ice as soon as practicable, to follow up 
his successes by taking Philadelphia. The villages 
along the river were occupied by his troops, and he 
waited for his opportunity. This was the darkest mo¬ 
ment in the war. The troops were outnumbered, dis¬ 
heartened and ill supported, and the strong places were 
falling or had fallen into the hands of the enemy ; but 
the sun was still shining behind the clouds. 

5. — Victory at Trenton. Christmas night, 1776, 
was made memorable by an event, which reanimated 
the soul of liberty throughout the United States. 
There was a terrible storm, so severe that men were 
frozen to death that night, when Washington recrossed 





142 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


the Delaware with 2,400 men, and attacked the Hes¬ 
sian troops in Trenton, killing their leader and cap¬ 
turing 1,000 prisoners, with a loss of only four of his 
own men. The surprise was perfect, and when Wash¬ 
ington returned to his camp after that victory, the pros¬ 
pects of the patriot army had improved wonderfully. 
Kecruits came in daily, men whose term of service had 
expired, remained; and Lord Cornwallis, who was to 
have carried to England the news of the almost com- 
plete extinction of the American army, was recalled 
by his commander in chief to enter upon a winter s 
compaign. The light of battle was in the eyes of the 
people. 

G. — Princeton Victory. Washington recrossed 
the river, January 3, 1777, at the same point, and estab¬ 
lished himself at Trenton to await the coming of Corn¬ 
wallis. The Royalist forces came up about sunset, and 
attacked our little army, but they were repulsed with 
some loss, and the British general resolved to wait un¬ 
til morning. He had no cause for hurrying; there 
was no escape for the troops under Washington ; they 
should all be taken in the morning, as his force was 
enormously superior, and they were shut in by his 
lines, and the impassable river. Washington was no 
sluggard, and neither his troops nor himself could 
sleep that night. The watch fires burned brightly 
along the whole line, and behind that wall of flame, 
the patriot army moved noiselessly away with forty 
cannon, over the newly frozen country roads, which a 
few hours before were impassable. The British troops 
at Princeton were entirely unprepared for an attack, 
when the Americans fell upon them, and routed the 
force, capturing three hundred prisoners, with whom 
the Greneral marched to Morristown Heights, without 
pausing. Lord Cornwallis arrived at Princeton, too 
late to redeem the fortune of war, and his foes were 
beyond his power. The praise of Washington was on 
every lip, and all that winter he harassed the British, 
until New Jersey was all but rescued from their arras. 



UNITED STATES. 


143 


< — Brandywine Creek. The patriot army was 
so small and ill provided that it was impossible for 
Gen. Washington to carry out any large scheme of 
operations, lie could only wait upon fortune and re¬ 
serve such force as he possessed for the most promising 
enterprises. The Briiish general wanted a decisive 
battle, but our commander could not be entrapped ; 
and after waiting until September, 1777, Gen. Howe, 
dispatched a force of 18,000 men to the Chesapeake in 
his brother’s fleet, to assail Philadelphia from that 
direction. There was now no option; a general en¬ 
gagement must be risked, and our troops were posted, 
as well as circumstances would permit, at Bhadd’s 
Ford, on the Brandywine Creek, thirty miles southwest 
of the city. The army was only 11,000 strong, and 
the struggle was unsuccessful on our side. The Brit¬ 
ish won the day, September 11, 1777, and took pos¬ 
session of Philadelphia, establishing winter quarters at 
Germantown. The Harquis De La Fayette and the 
Count Pulaski won golden opinions by their gallant 
behavior during the battle of Brandywine Creek. 

8. — Germantown Engagement. Just after the 
enemy had settled down in winter quarters, Washing¬ 
ton made an attack on their contonments at sunrise, 
October 4, 1777, his troops having marched all night 
to carry out the design. The assault was at first suc¬ 
cessful, but eventually our soldiers were compelled to 
retreat before a superior force. A dense fog, which 
prevailed during, prevented such cooperation as had 
been planned by Washington. The forts on the Dela¬ 
ware were now bombarded by the British General, and 
our troops compelled to retreat, after which the armies 
went into winter quarters; Howe and his men in Ger- 
manton and Philadelphia; Washington and our troops 
at Valley Forge. 

9. — Northern Successes. There was better 
news coming in from the north, where an army of 
10,000 men, under Gen. Burgoyne, was to have demol¬ 
ished the cause of liberty. The General took com- 


144 COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

mand in Canada in the summer of 1777, and in June 
commenced his march, attended by about 2,000 Indian, 
allies. His army was exceedingly well appointed, 
and much was expected from his abilities. The forts 
at Crown Point, Ticonderoga and Edward were cap¬ 
tured immediately, and the supplies at Whitehall were 
taken; the small body of men under Gen. Schuyler 
being utterly disproportioned to the force under Bur- 
goyne. The roads were obstructed, bridges destroyed, 
and such work as untiring valor found possible was 
accomplished, still the enemy advanced, and the out¬ 
rages of the Indians, more than even the loss of the forts, 
roused the people to participate in the war. From all 
the surrounding states militiamen were arriving, and 
daring officers, such as Lincoln, Moig'an and Arnold, 
were sent to watch the advance. Schuyler is sympa¬ 
thized with because he was superseded by Gen. Gates 
just at the moment when his schemes approached 
fruition; but he was too much a patriot to allow that 
cricumstance to dampen his ardor. The army, speed¬ 
ily formed, was drilled as rapidly, and a position on 
Bemis Heights was fortified under the direction of the 
brave Thaddeus Kosciusko, who was to fight for liberty 
on both sides of the Atlantic. 

10. — British Reverses. Burgoyne had not found 
affairs exactly to his mind, although he had found no 
army ready to attack him. Col. St. Leger was to have 
taken Fort Stanwix, and after ravaging the Mohawk 
Yalley, rejoin the General at Albany. Benedict Ar¬ 
nold, with an inferior force, was dispatched by Schuy¬ 
ler to create a diversion in favor of the fort and the 
valley, and he contrived to fill the British troops with 
the belief that a large American army was close at 
hand, so that by a ruse he came into possession of their 
cannon and camp equipments, and defeated their ex¬ 
pedition without striking one blow. Another party was 
detailed to seize the American supplies at Bennington, 
Yt., but Gen. Stark and a body of militiamen defeated 
the foragers, taking nearly 600 prisoners. 





































































/ 


UNITED STATES. 


145 


11. — Battles of Stillwater. Burgojne suf¬ 
fered for the want of reinforcements and supplies, and 
his troops were becoming demoralized, so that it be¬ 
came necessary to make some vigorous movement; 
hence he attacked Gen. Gates’ strong position on Bemis 
Heights September 19, 1777. The battle raged sll the 
day long, but it was not a decisive victory for the 
Americans, and at night both armies retired to their 
respective camps, and no further engagement has to be 
recorded until October 7th. The camp of the British 
troops had been kept in continual alarm, but no attack 
in force had been attempted. Gates waited for some 
false move on the part of Burgoyne, and the British 
General had come to the point where he must win a 
victory, surrender at discretion, or starve. He pre¬ 
ferred fighting, and a last desperate effort was made. 
It is claimed that the success of the American arms on 
the second day’s work at Stillwater, sometimes known 
as the Battle of Saratogo, was due to Benedict Arnold, 
who was undoubtedly brave; but in any case the vie 
torj" this time was unquestioned. There was a vigor¬ 
ous charge on the British line of attack, and the sol¬ 
diers were driven back to their camp, where the Hes¬ 
sians fled in confusion, after firing only one volley. 

12. — Surrender at Saratoga. The defeated 
General fell back to Saratoga and there deliberated 
upon the chances of war. Provisions were scarce, and 
dangers hemmed him in on every side, nor was there 
any hope of reinforcements. The cannon on Bemis 
Heights commanded the camp and a surrender was 
the only course that could be suggested by a council 
of war. The Indian allies, once so wily, had nothing 
to suggest, and the Tories had already taken their de¬ 
parture, so the General made the best capitulation pos¬ 
sible under the circumstances, surrendering 6,000 men 
with all the material for an army of twice that num¬ 
ber, to the comparatively raw levies at Saratoga. The 
news from the north compensated the Union for the 
misfortunes that had befallen Philadelphia. 

10 



146 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

13 . — Sufferings in Yalley Forge. There is 
an adage that the darkest hour is that before the dawn. 
Winter in Yalley Forge was very dark indeed. Con¬ 
tinental currency had so depreciated that it was no 
longer current. Clothing, food, weapons, even physi¬ 
cal strength seemed to have been exhausted and death 
came as a relief to brave men who had vowed them¬ 
selves to the cause of freedom. The endurance mani¬ 
fested by Washington and his brave followers in that 
fearful season of trial was more truly heroic than to 
win unnumbered battles with the advantages of wealth 
and complete equipment. The men who struggled 
through the winter of 1777-8, under Gen. Washing¬ 
ton, were sustained by the courageous example of 
their leader and by a consciousness of the purity of 
the cause for which they were suffering. 

14. — Benjamin Franklin, whose efforts in England 
not averting the necessity for war, had long since been 
sent to the court of France, where he speedily became 
very popular, and the dreary winter was enlivened as 
it drew towards its close by news that France had ac¬ 
knowledged the Independence of the United States, 
and would despatch a fleet to assist in vindicating the 
rights of the country. 

15. — Battle of Monmouth. Gen. Washington 
was surrounded by men who would die for him, but 
there were among his officers, not a few, who in their 
wrongheaded obstinacy imperiled his best laid 
schemes. Gen. Lee was a man of that condition. 
After the conclusion of the campaign of 1777, Gen. 
Howe returned to England, and Clinton assumed the 
command. That General, having learned that the 
French fleet, under D’Estaing, was approaching, he re¬ 
solved upon concentrating his forces, and New York 
was to be his center. Washington followed him 
across New Jersey, and the two forces met at Mon¬ 
mouth, where, just at the moment when victory was 
imminent, Gen. Lee commanded a retreat; fortunately 
the commander-in-chief was on the ground and he 


UNITED STATES. 


147 


changed the fortune of the battle by his personal in¬ 
trepidity. The engagement Insted all the day, and in 
the darkness of the night Gen. Sir Harry Clinton 
made a hasty retreat to Hew York. 

— Count D’Estaing arrived with his fleet, and 
it was arranged that he should cooperate with the army 
under Gen. Sullivan, in an attack upon the British 
forces in Hewport, Rhode Island ; but just at the time 
when the combined operation was to have been carried 
out, TIowe, with the British fleet, arrived off the har¬ 
bor, and the French commader went out to meet him. 
The storm, m which both fleets were involved, dam¬ 
aged the ships so badly, that both Admirals put back 
for repairs, and there was no further aid from France 
during the campaign of 1778; but the presence of 
D'Estaing prevented Howe entering the Bay of Harra- 
gansett just when he might have cooperated with the 
forces under Gen. Clinton. 

17 . — The Yalley of Wyoming. The scalping 
knife and the tomahawk seem more terrible than at 
any other time when civilized races summon their aid. 
The massacre of Wyoming illustrates the sickening 
barbarities which are under such circumstances likely 
to give a new horror to war. The men who were ca-^ 
pable of taking part in the war were mostly engaged 
in the field, when Butler, commanding a band of To¬ 
ries and Indians, entered the Yalley of Wyoming.. 
There was a fort in which the women and children 
found refuge, and the old men and youths bravely 
fought the invaders, but they were outnumbered and 
defeated, and every torture that malignity could devise 
was expended upon them by the Indians before they 
were put to death. The fort was surrendered upon 
conditions that were shamelessly disregarded, and the 
wliole valley was desolated, the survivors flying for 
their lives through the wilderness. 

18 . — The Campaign of 1779. Southern Vicissi¬ 
tudes. Georgia, the youngest of the states, was made the 
scene of British operations in the latter part of 1778. 






148 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


Savannah and Augusta fell immediately and the whole 
state was overrun, so that there was once a Royal 
Province and a British Giovernor for a brief term on 
this continent. Clinton seemed to have despaired of 
success in the more populous states, and therefore his 
attentions were directed against a comparatively de¬ 
fenseless section of the Union. Charleston, S. C., was 
the next point of attack, but the siege under Prevost 
was precipitately raised on the approach of an Amer¬ 
ican force under General Lincoln, and Prevost return¬ 
ed to Savannah. The recapture of Savannah was gal¬ 
lantly attempted in September, 1779, by Lincoln in 
combination with the fleet under the French Admiral, 
but a thousand lives were lost in an attack after a 
severe bombardment of the city, and the Count 
D’Estaing then refused further assistance. The patri¬ 
ots blamed him very severely for his conduct. The 
brave Pole, Pulaski, found a grave here, and his ser¬ 
vices with the Legion bearing his name were, at a 
later date, commemorated by a monument in Savannah. 

19. — Northern Operations under Clinton were lit¬ 
tle other than savage acts of spoliation, where no de¬ 
fense was possible and where no military advantage 
followed his course of action. Norwalk, Fairfield and 
New Haven, Conn., were plundered and set on fire, 
and the work of destruction was made as complete as 
possible. Wherever a few men could be gathered to 
make a show of opposition, the predatory bands were 
kept from giving a taste of their quality. General 
Putnam rendered good service to our cause and dis¬ 
tinguished himself at Horse Neck, operating against 
Tryon this summer. 

20. — Stony Point was captured by General Wayne 
with a force of eight hundred men, with the aid of a 
negro who was in the habit of visiting the fort and 
knew the countersign. The colored patriot led the 
.•attacking party by a route well known to him, and, ad¬ 
vancing alone to the sentinel, gave the word, after which 
jhe remained conversing with the soldier until he could 


UNITED STATES. 


149 


be surprised and prevented from giving an alarm. From 
that point the troops passed over the causeway and 
reached the hill undiscovered. About midnight the 
assault was made with every precaution to secure 
silence, but the attacking party was tired upon by the 
first picket of the fort and Wayne was one of the first 
wounded, but at his own request he was carried at the 
head of his column and the capture was speedily 
effected. The defenders lost six hundred men in killed, 
wounded and prisoners, besides the fort and its contents. 

21. — Chastising the Tories and their allies, the 
red men, was the task allotted to Gen. Sullivan in the 
Genesee country, and the Wyoming massacre was not 
forgotten. There was a battle near Elmira, N. Y., and 
the enemy received a crushing defeat, after which the 
American force laid waste the Indian villages. 

22. —John Paul Jones, whose real name was John 
Paul, rendered effectual service to the cause of the 
union on the sea. The naval service was necessarily 
small, but it consisted of able and daring men, in 
small vessels generally fitted out as Letters of Marque 
and privateers, and within the first three years of the 
war five hundred British vessels had been taken along 
the coast. The naval department had no more active 
and enterprising man than Paul Jones, who ravaged 
the coasts of Great Britain. After several noteworthy 
exploits, Jones procured a French vessel which he 
named Le Bon Homme Richard^ in honor of Benjamin 
Franklin’s genius, and with that vessel captured the 
Serapis, an English Frigate, in every way a better ship 
than his own, and carrying heavier guns. Our ship 
was old and rotten before the French gave her to Paul 
Jones, but she was made seviceable until the Serapis 
had been taken in a desperate hand to hand encounter, 
and from that time the British vessel was sailed by 
Paul Jones, under our flag, a terror to English com¬ 
merce. The pride of the mother country was more 
touched by such exploits than by the surrender of an 
army. 








150 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


23. — Charleston, S. C.j was again attacked in 1780, 
and ibis time an overwhelming force by land and sea 
compelled a surrender, after a bombardment and siege 
of forty days duration. Gen. Lincoln managed the 
defense admirably. Cornwallis sent predatory })arties 
under Tarleton and other such leaders, to distress the 
colonists in all directions, and terrible brutalities were 
perpetrated. 

24. — Burgoyne’s Capture. Gen. Gates took 
command of the southern army, but his conduct in 
this campaign favors the idea that his previous success 
was not due to his own energy. Gates planned a 
night attack on Cornwallis, near Camden, and the 
British, who had entertained a similar project, for the 
same time, were met in the woods marching to sur¬ 
prise the American camp. After skirmishing in the 
dark for a time, both forces waited for day, and the 
advantage of the encounter was entirely on the side 
of the enemy. Baron Be Kalb, Major General of the 
force, and second in command, fell mortally wounded 
on the field, and his comrades were overpowered fight¬ 
ing bravely. The militia fled, and Gates was nowhere 
during tlie engagement. The Union force in the south 
was entirely broken up. 

25. — Patriot Leaders. The defense of the south 
became little other than a guerilla warfare. Marion, 
Sumpter, Lee and Pickens rallied the most daring men 
in the Carolinas — North and South, and British de¬ 
tachments were cut off in all directions. Some garri¬ 
sons were captured, and a system of reprisals, ren¬ 
dered necessary by the conduct of Tarleton and the 
Tories, made the country very warm during the con¬ 
tinuance of British rule. Some of the patriots were 
so poorly armed that they depended largely upon pro¬ 
curing the weapons and'ammunition of their enemies. 
Such tactics prevailed at Hanging Eock, August 6, 
and at King’s Mountain, October 7, in both of which 
engagements the patriots were victorious. 

26. — Unlimited inflation had been the policy of 


UNITED STATES. 


151 


Congress in all monetary concerns from the first, and 
$200,000,000 issued by authority, could be bought for 
$50,000,000 specie. Currency would hardly buy 
necessary articles, and the soldiers were unable to pro¬ 
cure boots with their pay. The British government 
lielped the financial muddle by circulating counterfeit 
notes, and, in some districts, the troops were at the 
point of famine. Robert Morris, of Philadelphia, sent 
8,000,000 rations to the army, and relief associations 
were formed, but the distress was so imminent that 
Pennsylvania troops, to the number of 1,600, left the 
camp at Morristown to secure redress by force in 
Philadelphia. Sir Harry Clinton, whose spies were 
everywhere, improved the occasion by offering bribes 
to the revolting Union soldiers as a premium for de¬ 
sertion, and numbers of these creatures were handed 
over to the authorities by the men whose poverty they 
hoped to corrupt. A congressional committee speedily 
pacified the clamor by showing that they were doing 
all in their power to carry the war to a successful con¬ 
clusion. 

27. — Arnold, the Traitor. While the soldiery 
w^ere suffering heroically, and in the main without 
complaining, Benedict Arnold meditated an act of 
treason unsurpassed in the world’s history. His brav¬ 
ery had long been his only recommendation to employ¬ 
ment, and he never suffered want if it was possible to 
rob the men serving under him, or anybody else; he 
had now married a Tory, and was living with his wife 
in great style in Philadelphia. Charges of a grave 
nature were proved against him, and it became neces¬ 
sary that he should be publicly rebuked by the Com¬ 
mander in Chief. Gen. Washington performed his 
duty as gently as circumstances would permit, in con¬ 
sideration of Arnold’s services, but the disgrace was 
keenly felt by the unprincipled man, and he sought 
an opportunity to revenge himself upon his country. 
Having by solicitation procured the command of West 
Point, under the pretense that he wished to redeem his 



152 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

character, this position, the most important in our 
possession, he at once offered to Sir Harry Clinton for 
a price, and the terms of the infamous compact were 
arranged without delay. The plan of surrender re¬ 
quired an interview with an agent above the status of 
an ordinary spy, and Maj. Andre, an English officer 
much respected, passed the American lines to complete 
the details. The British sloop Vulture conveyed him 
up the Hudson to West Point, but fire having been 
opened on the vessel, she dropped down the river, and 
Andre was under the necessity to return overland to 
New York. The papers were concealed in his dress, 
and Andre reached Tarrytown on his return, when 
three men, Paulding, Williams, and Van Wart, seized 
him on suspicion. Knowing that one American offi¬ 
cer was corrupt, Andre thought he could procure his 
release by bribes; but his offers convinced the men 
that they had obtained a valuable prize, and he was 
conveyed to the nearest post. A safe conduct from 
Arnold was looked upon as a forgery, and the officer 
in command was on the point of sending Andre to 
West Point as a prisoner, but providence intervened. 
A note from the officer conveyed to Arnold the intel¬ 
ligence that his treason had miscarried, so that he had 
time to escape on board the Vulture, at a point lower 
on the Hudson, and he detained the boatmen as pris¬ 
oners. The price obtained by the traitor was about 
$32,000 and a colonel’s command in the English army ; 
but officers of standing would not associate with him, 
and he was continually insulted to the end of his life, 
although protected by the king. Andre, sympathized 
with by all classes, was necessarily hanged as a spy, 
and the Union service was happily purged of a brave 
and able, but most iniquitous officer in the desertion 
of Arnold. 

28. — Conclusion of the War —1781. Gen. 
Greene succeeded to the command which had been 
demoralized by Gates, and found only about 2,000 
men in the last stages of destitution. The Battle of 


UNITED STATES. 


153 


Cowpens was fought by a part of this force under Gen. 
Morgan, who was attacked on the 17th of, January, 
1781, by Col. Tarleton. The militia retreated in con¬ 
fusion, and the Continentals made a retrograde move¬ 
ment to secure a strong position. Tarleton thought 
the whole force was routed, and his soldiers rushed, 
forward to annihilate the Colonists, but our troops, 
facing about at the word of command, delivered a de¬ 
structive fire at point blank range, and the British 
colonel was completely defeated, many prisoners being 
taken. Lord Cornwallis was desirous to retrieve this 
disaster, but Morgan retreated into Virginia, carrying 
his spoils with him, and the Catawba, just swollen by 
heavy rain, prevented an instant pursuit. 

29. — Gen. Morgan was now joined by the Com¬ 
mander, and the retreat from this point was conducted 
by Greene. The weather favored our forces. Just 
after the Yadkin had been crossed by the patriots, the 
river was so swollen that Cornwallis was forced to 
make a detour before passing the stream. The start 
thus obtained saved Greene’s command from absolute 
demolition by a superior force. The patriotism of the 
South was proved by many noble deeds of self sacri¬ 
fice during this cornpaign. and when at l^st the fords 
of the Dan were crossed before Cornwallis could come 
Tip to dispute the passage, the British commander aban¬ 
doned the chase. Gen. Greene won and deserved the 
•unanimous thanks of Congress for his masterly con¬ 
duct. 

30. — Fighting Cornwallis. Greene wanted a 
respite only for his men, and he had given them con¬ 
fidence in his and their own powers. We find him 
at Guilford Court House, March 15, 1781, fighting 
against great odds, but now the assailant. The militia 
did not stand fire, but the continental troops held 
their own splendidly, and although there was not a 
victory, Cornwallis retreated to Wilmington pursued 
by Greene immediately afterwards. The force under 
his command being insufficient to invest Wilmington, 


154 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

Greene now joined Marion, Sumpter, Pickens and 
Lee in South Carolina, and harassed the English 
until Georgia as well as South Carolina were almost 
entirely free from the troops of the oppressor. The 
enemy was so broken by the battle at Eutaw Springs, 
September 8th, that they retired upon Charleston, 
South Carolina. The commander of the enemy, re¬ 
lieved from the presence of Greene, made a raid into 
Virginia, and although the tories made many demon¬ 
strations, the regular war in the south had come to an 
end, although Charleston was not evacuated until the 
following year, 1782. 

31. — Northern Operations. Arnold, the Traitor, 
was in Virginia, covering himself with infamy by his 
brutal endeavors to prove his usefulness to the enemy. 
La Fayette, with an inferior force, held him somewhat 
in check until Cornwallis, coming from South Caro¬ 
lina, assumed the command, and continued, with a 
much greater force, the same horrible system of 
butchery, plunder and destruction. Gen. Clinton, 
Commander in Chief, recalled Cornwallis from his 
marauding expedition in the interior, directing him to 
keep near the coast ready to cooperate in a scheme of 
defense should Washington attack New York, and 
in consequence that officer fortified himself in York- 
town. 

32. — Combined Attack. Our French allies and 
our own forces now proceeded to hem in Cornwallis at 
Yorktown. Washington assumed the offensive at 
New York, so that Clinton believed himself in mo¬ 
mentary danger of an assault, until the commander in 
chief was drawing near his actual point of atrack, and 
on the 28th of September twelve thousand men were 
before Yorktown. Batteries were opened immediately, 
and red hot shot and shells fired the shipping in the 
harbor. The American force carried one redoubt, 
while the French troops carried another, and the finest 
spirit of emulation made every soldier equal to the 
work of two men. The walls were soon breached, and 


UNITED STATES. 


155 


an assault was imminent, when Lord Cornwallis fol¬ 
lowed the example of Burgoync and capitulated on 
the 19tli of October, 1781. 

38. — SuKRENDER OF YoRKTOWN. Gen. Washing¬ 
ton commanded that the sword of Cornwallis should 
be delivered to Gen. Lincoln who had been compelled 
to surrender Charleston, and the captive army, 7,000 
strong, marched out from the fortifications with cased 
colors and arms shouldered, between the two armies, 
French and American. Cornwallis essaped the humili¬ 
ation of being present by a convenient fit of sickness, 
but the defeat was entire and complete, and every per¬ 
son felt that the war had come to an end. There was 
great rejoicing in every patriot heart, but the’Tories 
and the traitors wei’e eaten up with an ignoble rage. 
Hardships, until now all but unbearable, were swal¬ 
lowed up in victory ; joybells were ringing, and the 
watchmen in the streets announced the intelligence 
with tears of thankfulness as they made their nightly 
rounds in the city of Philadelphia. Men awakened 
from their slumbers, rushed to the windows to be 
sure. Congress assembled very early in the morn¬ 
ing, and in the afternoon succeeding, marched to the 
Lutheran church, where the Te Deuin of thanksgiving 
from full hearts ascended to the God of Battles, for 
signal mercies vouchsafed to the youngest nation on 
the globe ; beginning then and there a career of pros¬ 
perity unexampled in all time. England saw that 
the conquest of such a people was impossible, and the 
populace demanded that the ministry which had 
advised on the war should be dismissed. The House 
of Commons denounced further action, and George III 
was compelled by his weakness to submit to the de¬ 
mands of justice. 

34.— After the War. The greatest peril that 
ever menaced a country was now pressing upon the 
United States, although the war was virtually ended. 
There was no commerce, no trade, no manufactures; 
and agriculture had long been neglected because of 



156 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA- 


the war, which, since the battle of Lexington, had 
decimated the people and unsettled all avocations. 
Many, who were wealthy when the struggle commenced, 
were now penniless, and the currency which bad been 
forced into circulation for some time past would buy 
nothing. The army was almost in open rebellion be¬ 
cause there was no prospect of their services being ac¬ 
knowledged by the scanty pay to which they were 
entitled, and without which they could not, in many 
cases, reach home. Under similar circumstances, dur¬ 
ing the Commonwealth in England, the Puritan sol¬ 
diers compelled the Parliament to succumb to their 
demands, and their action made Cromwell Dictator; 
but Ccmgress contained men of a higher type than the 
Parliament that was dismissed by Cromwell, and the 
incorruptible patriot Washington was superior to the 
promptings of ambition. Petitions to Congress for 
redress could not be answered from an empty treasury, 
and the angry troops offered the crown to the Com- 
mander-in-Chief, but the influence of the great and 
good man prevailed with both parties to prevent vio¬ 
lent measures, and every difficulty was accommodated 
by his intervention, so that there was no period of in¬ 
ternecine strife to encourage the English government 
to resume hostilities from the points which were still 
in their hands. 

35. — Treaty of Paris. Peace long since estab¬ 
lished (January 20, 1783). and the Independence of the 
United States substantially recognized by all the 
European governments, was formidly inaugurated by 
the treaty signed in Paris, September 3, 1783. The 
army was disbanded, and the Comraander-in-Chief 
carried with him to Mount Vernon such devotional 
regard, as has been increasing in the hearts of man¬ 
kind ever since that da\*, for a ruler of priceless in¬ 
tegrity. 

36. — Absence of Authoritt. The colonies had 
suffered so much from British tyranny and exactions 
that there was in every breast an undue jealousy of 


UNITED STATES. 


157 


governmental strength, and, in consequence thereof. 
Congress possessed too little power under the articles 
of confederation agreed to by the states. An advi¬ 
sory congress was found to be an utter failure, and the 
debt incurred by the management of the Eevolution 
ary War could not be dealt with save by an authori¬ 
tative body, but Congress could levy no taxes and, of 
course, possessed no funds, Shay's Rebellion, which 
aimed at the subversion of the general government, 
was subdued by the militia under Gen. Lincoln, in 
New England, but the weakness and inadequacy of 
Congress was admitted on all hands. It was necessary 
to make a strong Congress, such as could enforce the 
will of the whole people, yet such as could not become 
an incubus upon the population. 

37. — Solving the Problem. Philadelphia was 
the city chosen for the assemblage of a convention to 
revise the articles of confederation, and Gen. Wash¬ 
ington was chosen president of the assembly. The 
whole of the states, except Rhode Island, sent dele¬ 
gates, and the deliberations were at times anything 
but calm and conciliatory; but after much debate, the 
Constitution of the United States was adopted by that 
body, on the 17th of September, 1787, and the work 
of organization having been carried out during the 
following year, after a sufficient number of the states 
had ratified the articles to give them the force of law, 
the Constitution was brought fully into operation in 
1789. Four of the states delayed their ratification for 
some time; Rhode Island did not accept the Constitu¬ 
tion until 1790, but North Carolina, Rhode Island and 
the rest came under the operation of the law notwith¬ 
standing. 

XII. RFXENT HISTORY. 

Wathington and the Republic. 1787-1797. 

1.— Reviewing the Position. It might seem 
that there is no warrant for placing the time which 
elapsed from the adoption of the constitution to the 
inauguration of the first President, under Washington’s 



158 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


name, but be was tbe President of the Philadelphia 
convention in 1787, and his moral power, more than 
the influence of any other single individual, ruled the 
Union from the close of the war until he was elected 
President of the United States in 1789. His inaugu¬ 
ration, on the 80th of April, was an almost unanimous 
outburst of gratitude toward the twofold deliverer of 
his country. He had expeiled the foreign foe, and he 
had saved the nation from the tyranny of an armed 
dictator. His journey from Mount Vernon to New 
York, the temporary capital, was an ovation, and the 
people would have crowned him with flowers in every 
village. His oath to support the Constitution of the 
United States was taken on the balcony of the old 
Federal Hall. 

2. — AVant of Funds constituted the first difficulty 
with which the government was obliged to contend. 
The treasury was empty, and the experiment of a dem¬ 
ocratic republic being new, the moneyed men of the 
world had no credit to bestow upon novelties. The 
Indians were hostile, and there were no forces save the 
unpaid militia to hold them generally in check. Our 
navy could not protect our merchant vessels from Al¬ 
gerine corsairs. The navigation of the Mississippi 
was under Spanish control, and that nation refused us 
the right to travel on its waters. The whimsical ha¬ 
tred of George III prevented the nomination of an 
English minister to this government, and there was nc 
treaty of commerce between the countries. 

3. ’—Grasping the Nettle. Washington called 
around him the men of leading minds, who represent¬ 
ed all parties in the Union, and firmly holding them 
together, proceeded to arrange the affairs which his 
government must reduce into order, or fail entirely. 
Jefferson, Hamilton, Knox and Kandolph were asso¬ 
ciated with him in the cabinet. 

4. — The Treasury. Alexander Hamilton, the 
Secretary of the Treasury, induced Congress to assume 
the liabilities incurred by the several states during the 


UNITED STATES. 


159 


war of Independence, and to pay the national debt in 
its totality. Funds were raised for the purposes of 
government, by duties on imported goods, and an ex¬ 
cise on distilled liquors. Philadelphia was made the 
home of the United States Mint, and of a National 
Bank. The vigor exhibited in these measures estab¬ 
lished credit. There was, in 1794, an organized oppo¬ 
sition to the tax on spirits in western Pennsylvania, 
but 1,500 militia men subdued the riot, and the strength 
of the government was fully established. 

5. — Tribal Depredations. The Indians had de¬ 
feated two armies, sent for their subjugation, in the 
northwest, but the appointment of Gen. Wayne to the 
command was the signal of better action. The wiser 
Indians counseled peace, but a long career of rapine 
induced the majority to dissent, and the battle of Mau¬ 
mee was the consequence, August 20, 1794. The 
Indians were routed and destroyed, their towns laid 
waste for fifty miles, and they were glad to purchase 
peace by a treaty whereby they surrendered the terri¬ 
tory now forming Ohio and part of Indiana. Wayne 
was a terror to the Indians. 

6. — Foreign Debts. England complained that 
moneys due from citizens of the United States could 
not be collected, and the answer might justly have 
been. Your government, by its tyrannous action, has 
destroyed our means of payment, therefore look at 
home. Individual Americans did say as much, and 
called attention to the fact that American seaman were 
still subjected to impressment on the high seas, as well 
as that posts w’ere held on the frontier, as at Detroit 
and elsewhere. To arrange the matters in dispute. 
Chief Justice Jay went to England as Envoy Extraor¬ 
dinary, in 1795, but the treaty made by him excited 
much discontent among all classes, as it gave England 
all that was demanded, and secured no equivalent. 
The Senate became very unpopular because of the rat¬ 
ification of the treaty, and its advocates fell under the 
censure of the public. 





160 COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

7. — The Mississippi was opened to our ships bj a 
treaty with Spain in 1795, which also defined the 
boundaries of Florida. The Dey of Algiers was 
obliged to release Americans prisoners, detained by 
his government, and, under a treaty made with him, 
the commerce of the Mediterranean was made safe and 
practicable for American vessels. 

8. — The French Kevolution and the European war, 
which was the consequeuce of other nations intermed¬ 
dling with France in matters peculiarly domestic, ap¬ 
pealed to the sympathies of the American people with 
great force; but Washington and his Cabinet could 
not see cause for this country to rush into a war on 
that account, and the neutrality of the United States 
was preserved as nearly as possible under the circum¬ 
stances. Gfenet, the French Ambassador to this coun¬ 
try, fitted out privateers in our ports, and appealed to 
the people against the President; but the minister was 
recalled upon Washington’s representations. 

9. — Nearer Home. Washington could hardly 
keep the peace between contending parties in his own 
Cabinet. Jefferson associated with Madison, and Kan- 
dolf led the Pepublican party in the country, opposing 
the assumption of state debts by Congress, the Eng¬ 
lish treaty negotiated by Jay, and the establishment 
of a national bank. Alexander Hamilton and John 
Adams, able men and high principled, led the Feder¬ 
alists who supported Washington and desired a strong 
central government. Hamilton was rather a Monarch¬ 
ist than a Kepublican. Washington might have been 
reelected, but he declined a third term, and in the con¬ 
test between parties, Adams was elected his successor 
by two electoral votes over Jefferson. The nation had 
made very wonderful advances during the administra¬ 
tion of Washington, but the Gfeneral was only too much 
pleased to resign the authority which he had borne for 
so many years. 

Adams and the Itepnhlic. 1797-1801. 

10 . — Strong Government. John Adams was 


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U^sITED STATES. 


161 


entirely a man of strong measures, and immediately 
after his assumption of office he esteemed it necessary 
to repress the license with which the government of 
the United States was being assailed by residents in the 
country who thought that America should assist France. 
The alien and sedition laws were the natural result of 
the preponderance of his party, and it was now possi¬ 
ble for the President to expel any foreigner from the 
country if he saw such action to be advisable. Under 
the sedition law, fines and imprisonment were de¬ 
nounced against any person libelling the President or 
the government. The people hated those enactments. 

11. — Almost at \Var. The revolutionary gov¬ 
ernment in France treated this country with marked 
discourtesy. American vessels were captured and 
the flag dishonored, and envoys sent to the French 
Directory were refused an audience. Tlie men who 
had upheld the cause of France were silenced by that 
line of conduct. An army was to be raised, and Gen. 
Washington was nominated Cornmander-in-Chief ; but 
before any decisive action had been taken, Napoleon 
became First Consul, and a better understanding im- 
rnediatel}^ resulted. The people had learned the value 
of nonintervention in European politics. 

Jejferson and the Itepuldic. 1801-1S09. 

12. — Acquiring Louisiana. Thomas Jefferson 
was the most brilliant man that ever filled the Presi¬ 
dential chair, and his terms of office were marked by 
many events of large import for the United States and 
the world. The acquisition of Louisiana by purchase 
from Napoleon, in 1803, for $15,000,000, was an ad¬ 
mirable piece of statesmanship. The territory had 
been in the hands of Spain, and had been a cause of 
trouble in the early days of the Eepublic, and France 
had come into possession under an act of cession made 
by Spain. This purchase gave to us more than one 
million square miles of land, out of wdiich ten states, 
two territories, and parts of other states have been coiu 
structed, besides making us masters of the Mississippi 

11 



162 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

13. — Aaron Burr, who was Vice President during 
Jefferson’s first term of office, and who had at first the 
same number of electoral votes for the Presidency as 
Jefferson himself, 73, was bitterly antagonistic to Al¬ 
exander Hamilton, whom he challenged to a duel and 
shot dead. This event made Burr very unpopular, 
although he was brilliant and very able, as even those 
who disapproved of manvof the measures of Hamilton 
still admired the man. Burr went west during the 
second term, and under a pretense of having a design 
on Northern Mexico, was suspected of an attempt to 
break up the Union. On that charge he was arrested, 
and tried after long imprisonment; but the case could 
not be established. Burr was a man of irregular life, 
and with all his talents had a wonderful faculty for 
ruining his friends and himself. He passed some years 
in Europe and lived to an old age after his return to 
this country, but in public life he was a nullity after 
the death of Alexander Hamilton. 

14. — Egbert Fulton’s Steamboat. The first 
steamboat that ever traveled was the Perseverance, 
built by John Fitch, a native of Windsor, Connecti¬ 
cut, who constructed the vessel in 1787. He con¬ 
structed a model in 1785. His vessel attained a speed 
of six miles an hour, on the Delaware, but was subse¬ 
quently burned. After that event, the next introduc¬ 
tion of steamboats is due to the second Presidential 
term of Thomas Jefferson and the ingenuity of Robert 
Fulton. The Clermont ran for many years on the 
Hudson, from New York to Albany, being then the 
only steamboat in the world, and the second ever con¬ 
structed. The idea was worth more to the United 
States than Louisiana ten times repeated. 

15. — Bombarding the Bashaw. The pirates 
of the Barbary States had levied tribute upon the 
commerce of Europe for years, and nearly all the 
maritime nations submitted to the exaction. Cruisers 
from Tripoli captured small vessels belonging to any 
country, and held their passengers and crews at ran- 


UNITED STATES. 


163 


som. The United States had conformed to the custom 
of paying tribute, but, in 1801, the year of the acces¬ 
sion of President Jefferson, the Bashaw of Tripoli de¬ 
clared war against this country. The President sent a 
fleet to bombard the Mohammedan city, and, after a 
few lessons in the arts of civilized war, the Bashaw, 
completely subdued, asked humbly for peace. The 
disgraceful act of paying tribute ceased from that time. 

16. — Eukopean Wars. The wars of the French 
Eevolution continued with varied success. Napoleon 
was master of the continent of Europe and England 
was mistress of the seas. Napoleon sought to destroy 
the commerce of England by closing all the ports 
against her, and the carrying trade of the world was 
largely conducted by the United States. In the crude 
condition of international law which then prevailed, 
our shipping suffered from both parties ; but England, 
being more powerful on the seas, injured our com¬ 
merce more than France, and, besides, that country 
claimed the right of stopping any ship on the high 
sea to impress seamen of English birth into that naval 
service. The power was as monstrous as that exer¬ 
cised by the Bashaw of Tripoli before the bombard¬ 
ment of his capital. The capture of the American 
frigate Chesapeake by the British frigate Leopard, off 
Virginia, brought the quarrel close home, and Jeffer¬ 
son ordered all British ships of war to quit the waters- 
of the United States ; but England disavowed the act,, 
and, in consequence, war was not declared. An em¬ 
bargo laid by Congress upon all American vessels, 
forbidding them to leave port, was very injurious to 
commerce and was removed, but intercourse with 
either of the belligerent nations was interdicted. The 
war fever assisted to secure the election of James 
Madison, towards the close of President Jefferson’s 
second term, and the Kepublicans hoped that some oc¬ 
casion would arise to wipe out old scores. The Fed¬ 
eralists strongly opposed war measures, and they were 
a powerful minority. 



164 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

3Iadison and the Hepuhlic. 1S09-1817. 

17. — Defeat of Tecumseh. Great Britain, by 
her emissaries, had been for some time tampering with 
the Indians, and the brave and wily Tecumseh saw his 
opportunity, in 1811, to confederate the tribes in the 
Northwest against our government. The first great 
result of his powers of combination was a crushing 
defeat at the hands of Gen. Harrison, at Tippecanoe, 
Nov. 7, 1811. The attacking party came upon the 
American camp by night, but they were crushed 
completely, with an immense slaughter. 

18. — England. Everybody saw the hand of 
England in the Indian war, and the unjust preten¬ 
sions of that country as to the impressment of seamen 
continued without abatement. Sailors were taken, 
ships were captured if any opposition was offered, and 
vessels of war were even sent into our own waters to 
make prizes. Sometimes the insolence of the enemy 
appeared where prudence might have prescribed mod¬ 
eration. The British sloop-of-war Little Belt was 
hailed by our frigate President, and the answer was 
made by firing into our frigate. Tiie President spoke 
the same tongue for a little while, until the bellicose 
sloop was disabled, after which amicable relations were 
established. Finally, it became evident that there 
could be no honorable peace with the English nation 
until there had been war, and President Madison made 
the necessary declaration on the 19th of June, 1812. 

19. — Hull’s Cowardice. The invasion of Cana¬ 
da commenced the second war with England, and the 
conduct of Brig. Gen. Hull is, with the exception of 
Arnold's treason, the worst record that our military 
history has presented. That officer crossed into Cana¬ 
da, from Detroit, where he resided as Governor of 
Michigan, and issued a proclamation to the Canadians 
while he prepared to attack Fort Malden. As soon as 
he learned that a force was preparing to attack him, 
he fled precipitately, and was subsequently followed 
to Detroit by Gen. Brock and an Indian force under 


UNITED STATES. 


165 


Tecumseh. The fort at Detroit was sufficiently strong 
for defense, the troops were ready and willing to fight, 
and all the material was at hand, when the poor crea¬ 
ture raised the white flag, August 16, 1812, under 
which, without stipulation or condition of any kind, 
he surrendered Detroit city, garrison and stores, and 
the whole of Michigan to the enemy. The Gfovernor 
was court-martialed for cowardice and sentenced to be 
shot; but, in consideration of his age and services, he 
was afterwards pardoned, 

20. —Queenstown Heights. In the autumn of 
the same year, another invasion of Canada was deter¬ 
mined upon, and Gen. Van Rensselaer sent a detach¬ 
ment of troops across the Niagara River to carry 
Queenstown Heights. The position was won, and 
Gen. Brock, the commander, was among the slain. 
The General ordered the rest of his force to support 
the attacking party, but, to his intense disgust, the 
militia-men stood upon their state rights and would 
not go beyond their boundaries. The men who had 
made themselves masters of the Heights were thus 
abandoned to their enemies, and, after some desperate 
fighting, surrendered. 

21. — On the Sea. While our land forces were 
thus belying the reputation won by their fathers, the 
wooden walls of the Nation were sustaining the char¬ 
acter for intrepidity and success which was earned for 
our navy by the prowess of Paul Jones and his cotem¬ 
poraries. The first sea fight was between the Ameri¬ 
can frigate Constitution, Capt. Hull, and the Guerriere, 
Capt. Dacres, August 9, 1812. The attack was made 
by the Guerriere and the commander of the Constitu¬ 
tion manoeuvered his ship until he had secured the 
w^eather gage, whereupon he gave broadside after 
broadside to his enemy, for nearly two hours. The 
British ship surrendered when the vessel was so badly 
damaged that she would not float to be brought into 
port; so that there was much merit in the victory. 
The Captain of the Constitution was the nephew of 




166 COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

tbe Brigadier General that surrendered Detroit and 
Michigan only seven days later. 

22. — Boarding the Frolic. The sloop of war 
Wasp was cruising off the coast of North Carolina, 
when she fell in with the English brig Frolic, October 
18th, and a desperate engagement ensued, in -which 
the defenders of the British vessel fought until there 
was not a man left to strike the flag. The Wasp’s 
men boarded the enemy, and to their surprise they 
found that the only sailor on deck, not prostrated by 
injuries, was the man at the wheel. There were some 
compensations for the poor record on land in such 
deeds of courage upon the sea, and there were fully 
three hundred prizes taken by our privateers before 
the close of the year 1812. While these events were 
transpiring, the presidential term drew near its termi¬ 
nation and the people signified their endorsement of 
Madison’s war policy, by reelecting him President. 

28. — Campaign of 1813. There were three armies 
in the field and it was hoped that the proceedings of 
this season would redeem the character of the "land 
forces from the damage suffered during 1812. Gen. 
Dearborn commanded the army of the center, stationed 
on the Niagara Biver; Gen. Hampton, with the army 
of the north, was on the shores of Lake Champlain ; 
and Gen. Harrison, whose name was already popular, 
commanded the army of the west. The enemy en¬ 
trusted the conduct of the war to Gen. Proctor, and the 
Indian allies were under the command of Tecumseh. 
Two of the armies and their doings may be summed 
up in a few words. Gen. Dearborn attacked York, 
now Toronto, and the assault was being splendidly led 
by Gen. Pike, when the magazine blew up, killing 
him and a great portion of his command. The place 
was captured, April 27, 1813. Dearborn was shortly 
after succeeded by Gen. Wilkinson, who descended the 
St. Lawrence with his men, to combine with Gen. 
Hampton in attacking Montreal. After repulsing the 
British at Chrysler’s Field, there was some misunder- 


UNITED STATES. 


167 


standing between the two leaders, and the armies sep¬ 
arated without an attempt on Montreal. Hampton 
was defeated by the British at St. Johns, and then 
made his way to Plattsburg, where he was reinforced 
and did nothing for the remainder of the year. 

24. — Gen. Harrison, with the army of the west, 
made a good showing, and the men under his orders 
felt that they were in good hands. A detachment of 
his force on the Maumee, under Gen. Winchester, left 
the fort to render assistance to the people of French- 
town, who feared an Indian assault. The Indians were 
defeated, but before he could recover his position his 
men were attacked by an overpowering f('>rce under 
Proctor. The battle ended in a surrender upon hon¬ 
orable terms, but after the battle the English General, 
whether thoughtlessly or by design, left the American 
wounded at the mercy of the red skins maddened by 
whisky and success. The result made the massacre 
at Eiver Raisin a terrible war cry among Kentuckians 
during the rest of the campaign, as the sufferers were 
mostly from Kentucky. Proctor besieged Fort Meigs, 
defended by Harrison, but he soon found that the con¬ 
queror of Tecumseh knew the art of war, although 
his force was not strong enough to take the field. 
From Meigs, Proctor hastened to Fort Stephenson, 
where the garrison was only 150 strong, under the 
command of Major Croghan, but he was doomed to a 
second repulse, and after that event he returned to 
Canada. Still Michigan was in the hands of the ene¬ 
my, and Ohio was in danger at many points. 

25. — Battle of Lake Erie. The naval force on 
Lake Erie was assigned to the command of Capt. 
Perry, a young sailor only twenty-seven years of age, 
who had never seen a naval engagement. Many of the 
ships that were to sail under his orders were yet to be 
constructed, and he must win his victory, if there was 
such an achievement in store for him, against a man 
who had fought under Horatio Lord Nelson. Com¬ 
modore Barclay bore down upon Perry’s fleet of nine 




168 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

vessels carrying 54 guns, on the 10th day of Septem¬ 
ber, with six ships carrying 63 guns. The probabili¬ 
ties were all on the side of the largest ships and most 
guns, but the young commander was a hero that did 
not know when he was beaten. Ilis flag ship, the 
Lawrence, was attacked by two of the heaviest of the 
enemy as well in number of guns and men as in 
size, and he continued to flght until there were only , 
eight men left fit for action. When the last gun had 
been fired on board the Lawrence, he carred his flag 
to the Niagara, passing in a small boat through the 
British fleet. Hoisting his flag on the Niagara, he 
broke the enemy’s line, delivering both broadsides as 
rapidly as his men could load and fire, and before the 
countrymen of Nelson knew what the next movement 
might be. Perry was master of the situation. The 
dispatch sent by Perry to Gen. Harrison was as good 
in its way as the brief announcement by Cesar: Yeni^ 
vidi^ vici. Perry said: “We have met the enemy and 
they are ours.” All over the country those words 
were repeated, and the admiration earned by the young 
sailor became an impulse to patriotism in every heart. 

26. — Harrsion’s Victory. The dispatch from 
Perry found his colleague, Gen. Harrison, preparing 
for a descent on Canada, where Proctor and his In¬ 
dians under Tecumseh, fully two thousand strong, 
occupied Malden, designing to lay waste the Ameri¬ 
can frontier. The General hurried to Malden at once, 
but the enemy had fled, and he followed rapidly in 
pursuit. His course from Sandusky Bay had only 
prepared him for his work. The enemy were over¬ 
taken on the Thames, and his dispositions being al¬ 
ready made the battle was commenced without delay. 
Col. Johnson with his horsemen from Kentucky, full 
of remembrances of the Kaisin massacre, charged 
through the English line and formed immediately in 
the rear to resume operations. Proctor, on a swift 
horse, made his escape, and the arm}^ surrendered. 
The Indians were attacked with special energy, and 


UNITED STATES. 


169 


Tecumseli fell mortally wounded. That incident was 
in itself a defeat for the red men, and they fled in 
every direction, without striking another blow. This 
victory following so rapidly upon the Lake Erie ex¬ 
ploit, ended the war in this section of the country, 
and the two commanders were spoken of everywhere 
as the men who were alone worthy to command the 
armies and navy of the Union. 

27. — Loss OF THE Chesapeake. Capt. Lawrence, 
of the frigate Chesapeake, was in Boston Harbor re¬ 
fitting his vessel, and was in no sense ready for action 
when he received a challenge from Capt. Brock, of the 
Shannon, then lying off the harbor, to come out and 
fight him. Such a message should have commanded 
no attention under the circumstances, for half his men 
had been discharged, and the remainder were unpaid 
and all but mutinous, so that he could not properly 
fight his ship, even if she had been thoroughly refit¬ 
ted. Still his error was heroic, and the outcome might 
have been different had not a hand grenade burst in 
the arm chest of the ship at the very moment that the 
Shannon’s men boarded her. The slaughter was ter¬ 
rific, but when Capt. Lawrence fell mortally wounded, 
the last hope of victory was gone. The crew was fee¬ 
ble and disheartened, and the last words of their com¬ 
mander, “Don’t Give up the Ship,” fell upon the 
ears of men who were already beaten. 

28. — Creek Indians Defeated. Tecumseh in¬ 
duced the Alabama Indians to join his murderous 
league in 1811, and in 1818 Fort Mims was surprised, 
the garrison slaughtered, and the women reserved for 
worse tortures than they suffered in seeing their chil¬ 
dren slain and mangled. The facts of that piece of 
treachery and horror brought avengers from every 
quarter, and under Jackson the Indians were pursued 
from one point to another, until they made a stand on 
Horseshoe Bend in a fortified position. The troops 
scaled their works regardless of obstacles, and carried 
the day at the point of the bayonet. The Creek In- 




170 


COUNTEIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


dians knew that they were fighting for life, and they 
did all they could to repulse their assailants. Six 
hundred fell, and the poor remainder made their sur¬ 
render on such terms as a dog would have disdained. 
The tribe will long remember the battle of March 27, 
1814. 

20. — Barbarous Tactics. The British Navy 
seemed to have learned how to make war among the 
followers of Tecumseh, for the whole of the southern 
coast was ravaged by parties of sailors and marines 
landed from Admiral Cockburn’s squadron. Bridges 
were destroyed, villages burned, crops devastated, and 
other such acts of savage war were carried out along 
the seaboard of Virginia and the Carolinas. In the 
following year, similar tactics were observed on the 
coast of the northern states. Commerce was annihi¬ 
lated, towns in Maine and Connecticut were captured 
or bombarded, and on the 24th of August, Cen. Boss 
marched into Washington, where he burned libraries 
and public records, private dwellings and stores, and 
consummated his senseless barbarity by destroying the 
Capitol. From that point he made his way by the 
sea to Baltimore, where, on the 12th of September, the 
forces were disembarked to cooperate with the fleet in 
another wanton act of spoliation. Fort McHenry was 
allotted to the fleet, but the attempted bombardment 
produced no effect, and the troops met with so much 
resistence on land that the men who had been under 
Oen. Boss’ orders, retired to the ships, and the erasure 
of Baltimore was postponed. Gen. Boss was killed 
while reconnoitering on this expedition. On all hands 
there was indignation and a resolve to wreak ven¬ 
geance upon the authors of the ruin that was being 
wrought, and every seaport was speedily fortified to 
prepare for such assaults. 

30. — The Campaign of 1814. Canada was at¬ 
tacked once more; the army under Gen. Brown cross¬ 
ing the Niagara Biver. Fort Erie was captured ; the 
victory at Chippewa was won by Gen. Winfield Scott 


UNITED STATES. 


171 


on the 5th of July, and twenty days later the bloody 
battle of Lundy’s Lane was fought to a brilliant finish. 
The day was closing in when Scott gave Col. Miller 
instructions to carry the key of the British position, a 
battery on a height. The Colonel headed his regi¬ 
ment, and was soon master of the battery; but the 
British knew its value as w^ell as he; three times they 
concentrated their force upon its recapture, and as 
many times the}^ were driven back in dismay by the 
well organized defense, until about midnight they re¬ 
tired from the contest, leaving victory with our in¬ 
domitable troops. 

31. — Lake Champlain. Plattsburg was almost 
entirely deprived of troops; there were only 1,500 in 
the place on the 11th of September; the rest had been 
sent to Canada to serve under Gen. Brown, when Gen. 
Prevost with 12,000 men, who had gone through the 
Peninsular wars with the Duke of Wellington, at¬ 
tacked the town. The British fleet on the lake was 
to render essential aid in demolishing the place, and 
there was only one obstacle to success: a squadron 
of American vessels under the command of Commodore 
McDonough. Still there was an obstacle sufficient for 
the purpose by land and by lake. The 1,500 soldiers 
defended the passage of the Saranac against nearly as 
many thousand veterans, and the fleet upon which 
Prevost depended was all but destroyed. The Battle 
of Lake Champlain has a place in history, but Great 
Britain has no poet to sing its praise. The British 
Commodore lost his ships, and the General fled with 
his armjq leaving sick, wounded, and military stores, 
in proof of his precipitation. 

32. — Battle of New Oeleans. The last en¬ 
gagement in this war was fought after peace had been 
concluded between England and America. Napoleon, 
who had been compelled to abdicate the throne of 
France and retire to Elba, was speedily to leave his 
splendid prison and reappear in France. England had 
probably an inkling of what would happen, if she was 





172 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

not really in the secret from its inception, and for that 
reason she wanted peace on this side of the Atlantic; 
hence the haste with which peace was concluded in 
the latter part of December, at Ghent, to prepare for 
the bloodier theatre of war. Unaware that they were 
already friends with this country, Gen. Pakenham’s 
command of 12,000 men and a powerful fleet ad¬ 
vanced to the attack on Uew Orleans. Gen. Jackson 
had thrown up entrenchments some miles below the 
city, and the assailants were met by a destructive fire, 
but they moved steadily through the hail storm of 
death. Solid columns opposed to the riflemen of Ken¬ 
tucky and Tennessee were bound to suffer, and the 
soldiers that had been invincible so long, wavered now. 
Pakenham fell dead as he was heartening his troops, 
and his successor, Lambert, continued the battle until 
nightfall; but the defeat of the attacking party was as 
thorough as the attack was found to have been unneces¬ 
sary. The British lost 2,000 men in the encounter, 
and the defenders only a dozen killed and wounded. 

33. — Fruits of the Conflict. The treaty sub¬ 
scribed at Ghent did not contain an express abandon¬ 
ment of the British claim as to impressment, but there 
was a tacit understanding that it would never be again 
put forward, and that concession justified the w^ar, 
although the cost to the country amounted to $127,- 
000,000. The nation had not spent blood and treas¬ 
ure in vain ; the powers of her people had been proved 
by land and sea, and Europe had been taught that it 
is not practicable for any force to conquer and retain 
possession of this territor}^ While the w^ar lasted, 
there had been an enforced protection of American 
manufactures, as European shipments had been cut off 
by the blockade, and when the terrible visitation camci 
to an end, the home made article could hold its own' 
against all honest competition. The resources of the 
people had not been in any sense permanently im¬ 
paired, although trade, commerce and specie were 
strangers in the land, for within twenty years the war 


UNITED STATES. 


173 


debt bad been been entirely cancelled, and the nation 
was on its way to a wonderful prosperity. The naval 
preeminence of this country showed that the old Norse 
blood had not degenerated among the hardy mariners 
that live upon our coasts. While the war continued, 
the Algerines took advantage ^of the trouble to renew 
their depredations in the Mediterranean, and as soon 
as the immediate business on hand was completed, a 
fleet under Admiral Decatur proceeded to Tunis, 
Tripoli and Algiers to remonstrate with great guns. 
The pirates liberated every prisoner, made ample in¬ 
demnity for all losses, and gave such pledges for the 
future that other nations learned the proper way to 
deal with persons of that class. There was yet anoth¬ 
er consequence of the war. The federalists, once 
strong in the affections of the people, were routed be¬ 
cause they would have taken peace at any price, and 
when Madison’s second term came toward its end, 
another republican, James Monroe, was chosen almost 
by acclamation. 

Monroe and the Itejnihlic. lSJ7-182o. 

34. —The Missouri Compromise was an evidence 
of growth, as there was a time when no such question 
as the admission or nonadmission of a slave state to 
the union would have arisen; but in the year 1820, 
when it was first proposed that Missouri should be ad¬ 
mitted, public opinion was already so strong on the 
subject that nothing short of the promise contained in 
Henry Clay’s compromise, that the limits of slavery 
were irrevocably fixed, could have satisfied the nation, 
or procured the admission of Missouri in 1821, 

35. — Social progress was manifested under the ad¬ 
ministration of Monroe by the wondrous recuperative 
power exhibited by the country just emerging from a 
peculiarly disastrous war. Internal development, 
manufactures, steamboat enterprise, and a tendency 
to expand over the whole continent, spoke of a nation 
that already felt its destiny as one of the greatest, if 
not indeed the greatest thht is destined to help the 



174 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

progress of humanity. The era of inventivm genius 
which had dawned upon this country, before the colo¬ 
nies became a nation, was now advancing toward the 
brightness of perfect day. 

30. — Cession of Florida. Spain had never 
much honor nor any profit from this possession since 
the days of Ponce De Leon, and since the settlement 
of Georgia there had occurred many opportunities for 
defending the fort of St. Augustine at considerable ex¬ 
pense. In the year 1819, negotiations were com¬ 
menced with Spain for the purchase of Florida, and in 
1821, the treaty was made under which, in the follow¬ 
ing year, the territory was organized under the consti¬ 
tution. The announcement by the President in a mes¬ 
sage to Congress, that an attempt by any European 
nation to obtain a foothold on this continent would be 
considered by the United States as an unfriendly act, 
deserves special mention, as the Monroe doctrine, 
whether avowed or not, must continue to be the policy 
of this country ; and the gradual absorption of the 
possessions of France and Spain shows that similar 
views had been entertained for many years by our 
statesmen. The purchase of Louisiana was effected 
during the time that Mr. Monroe was our Minister in 
the Court of ISTapoleon. 

37. — The Nation’s Guest. The Marquis De La 
Faj’ette, who came to this country in the day of its peril, 
and stayed until that danger had been surmounted, 
came as our guest in 1824, and made a more than 
royal progress through the states, welcomed every¬ 
where. The thirteen states, for which he fought at 
Brandywine, and throughout the war until the sur¬ 
render at Yorktown, had grown into twenty-four 
states, and he also had changed from the young noble, 
full of generous enthusiasm, to the matured statesman, 
who had sounded the depths of human existence. He 
had assisted liberty in his native land until it became 
license, and then endangered his own life by arresting 
the dangerous excess. He had dared the anger of 


UNITED STATES. 


175 


royalty while it was strong, and generously sustained 
it when tottering to its fall. He had fought the 
battles of the people and been compelled to quit his 
: country for conscience sake when his emigration cost 

I him a prolonged and unjust imprisonment. His term 
of usefulness had not even then been reached, as he 
was to assist in exchanging the Bourbon proper on 
the throne of France for the Orleans branch in the 
citizen king, and in every act of his life to testify the 
presence of a conscience void of offense, and a heart 
full of generous emotions. The Marquis was worthy 
to be the guest of a nation. 

38. — Temper of the People. The Republican 
j party which had cast down and destroyed the Feder- 
i alists was gradually being broken into its constituent 
' parts. The ties of party were loosening and a new 

i. combination, to become known as the Whigs, was 

being erected in opposition to the other wing of the 
old party, thereafter known as the Democrats. John 
Quincy Adams and Henry Clay, favoring protection 
^ and internal improvements, represented the Whig ele- 

I inent, and the first named of the leaders, son of Presi¬ 
dent Adams, was chosen as the successor to President 
Monroe. 

Adams and the Itepublic. 1825-1829. 

39. — President Adams had not a majority of the 
electoral votes, nor had any one of the candidates, and 
the House of Representatives gave him the position; 
hence there was no strong party in his favor, and 
when his name was put forwared as a candidate for 
reelection, he, like his father, was doomed to suffer a 
defeat. The protective policy championed by him 
was peculiarly objectionable to the southern states, 
and Gen. Jackson, the defender of New Orleans, be¬ 
sides being the nominee of the Democrats, was popular 
because of his services, among all classes. The east, 
■upheld the protective tariff, but it could not sustain 
John Quincy Adams against such a combination as 
was arrayed for Jackson. The first railroad in the 





176 


COUNTEIES OF KORTH AMERICA. 


United States, and the Erie Canal, date from this 
term. The war debt was rapidl}^ diminishing, and 
there was a surplus in the treasury. Public works 
had been undertaken to an extent never before 
dreamed of, and at every step the nation was becom¬ 
ing wealthier, because of the wdse expenditure of its 
means. “ The old man eloquent ” was not to pass oK 
the stage of public life. 

Jachson and the Jiepiihlic. 1S29-1837. 

40 . — Potation in Office was the first innovation 
due to the peculiar constitution of Andrew Jackson’s 
mind. Washington had surrounded himself with men 
differing in views because it was his desire to combine 
the nation. Jackson was resolved to govern, and he 
would have his own friends and supporters around 
him, not only in his cabinet but in subordinate offices. 
Without descending to changes among clerks, there 
were about 700 removals within the first year, ten 
times as many as had been made before, since the con¬ 
stitution was adopted. 

41 . — Energetic Administration. In the third 
year of Jackson’s rule, 1832, South Carolina nullified 
the tariff, threatening secession if force was used to 
collect duties under it at Charleston. The president 
sent troops to the spot immediately, and proclaimed 
his resolve to execute the laws. Henry Clay’s “Com¬ 
promise Bill ” being carried, was the occasion for the 
pacification of South Carolina. Clay, on this measure 
being objected to by his friends, as a bar to his ever 
winning the presidency, said: “I would rather be 
right than president.” 

42 . — United States Bank. Jackson refused to 
renew the charter of the Bank, and on that basis was re¬ 
elected, so that he assumed to have tested the will of the 
people upon that question, and thereupon the public 
money was drawn from that institution. Much suffer¬ 
ing ensued, as the Bank called in its loans an-d a col¬ 
lapse immediately resulted, but during the crisis Jack- 
son was strongly upheld by the democratic majority 


UNITED STATES. 


177 

in the House, and when the local banks were aided by 
the funds being lodged with them, accommodation be¬ 
came more easy than ever before. Speculation grew 
rife, building lots for imaginary cities rose to a value 
unprecedented in our history until then, and the irides¬ 
cent bubble attracted all eyes for some years. 

4:3.-— Black Hawk War. Black Hawk was in 
his policy the successor of Tecumseh, with this differ¬ 
ence that he was under treaty obligations to the United 
States. The Sac and Fox Indians sold their lands to 
government and their reserved rights were respected, 
but Black Hawk, mistaking consideration for weak¬ 
ness, organized a plot in 1882 to recover the territory. 

I The war was vigorously prosecuted, the Indians de- 
i' feated, Black Hawk was deposed from his authority, 
and still more territory was purchased for settlement. 

4:4:. — Seminole War. The Indians in Florida 
were peculiarly intractable and fierce, and before set¬ 
tlement could be attempted on a large scale, their ab¬ 
sence was necessary. Under a treaty made with the chief 
I after the purchase from Spain, the tribe w:as to be remov- 
I ed to lands west of the Mississippi, but at the last mo¬ 
ment Osceola defied the United States. The chief was 
I taken prisoner and then consented to carry out the 
treaty, but as soon as he was free he organized a gen¬ 
eral massacre, and succeeded in slaughtering some hun¬ 
dreds. After much fighting the Seminoles retreated 
to the Everglades of Southern Florida, but were de¬ 
feated in the tangled swamps, by Col. Zachary Taylor 
in the battle of Ockechobee, December 25, 1837. 
Osceola, seized under a flag of truce, died in Fort Moul¬ 
trie in 1838, but the war did not come to an end final¬ 
ly until 1842. 

45. — Damaging U. S. Commerce. The injuries 
inflicted upon our ships and property during the Na¬ 
poleonic wars by France were to have been paid for to 
the extent of $5,000,000, but the Bourbon govern¬ 
ment broke the agreement. The President proposed a 
system of reprisals, but England acting as meditator 
12 




178 COUNTEIES OF NOETH AMEEICA. 

prevented hostilities, and the debt was paid. The 
vigor of such action pleased the people, and Martin 
Van Buren, a democrat, was elected to follow Jackson, 
thus indorsing his policy. Gen. Harrison, personally 
popular, was defeated. 

Van Baren and the Bepuhlic. 1837-1841. 

46. — Eesults of Inflation. Consequent upon 
the action of Gen.- Jackson, the local banks had pro¬ 
moted speculation, and just when Martin Van Buren 
became President there was a great crisis. The de¬ 
mand for payments in gold and silver for public lands 
was the immediate cause, but such an event must have 
come. The banks contracted their circulation, busi¬ 
ness men failed for enormous sums, properties fell to a 
tithe of assumed values, the general government could 
not meet its obligations for a time, and eight states 
failed. There was a complete panic, and trade was 
almost entirely at an end. 

47. — The Papineau Kebellion. The Canadian 
government was very unpopular in 1837-8, and the 
people rose in rebellion against England. Volunteers 
would have marched to aid the “Patriots,” but the 
President forbade any such action on the part of Uni¬ 
ted States citizens, and Gen. Winfield Scott was sta¬ 
tioned on the frontier to secure neutrality. There 
was some fighting on Navy Island, but not of such a 
character as to involve the two nations in war. There 
was a probability of war on the northeast boundary 
question, as the limits of New Brunswick and Maine 
had never been definitely settled, and the people were 
ready to take up arms, but the difficulty was averted, 
and eventually the ability of Daniel Webster, dis¬ 
played in the Ashburton Treaty, during Tyler’s ad¬ 
ministration, set all doubts at rest. The crisis in 
financial affairs weakened confidence in the party 
which had helped to bring it about, and when Van 
Buren was nominated for reelection he was defeated 
by Gen. Harrison supported by the W hig party. 


UNITED STATES. 


179 


ITart'isou aurl Tyler and the Bepahlic. 184t-184S. 

48. —Gen. Hakrison’s Death occurred thirty-one 
days after his inauguration; he was 68 years old, and 
the contest had been one of the most arduous ever, at 
at that time, fought for the presidency. Yice Presi¬ 
dent Tyler was his successor, and he failed to indorse 
the measures of the party by which he had been 
chosen. The “Log Cabin” President’s death was 
esteemed a great loss to the country. The bdl estab¬ 
lishing a United States bank was vetoed by President 
Tyler. The unpopular President never regained the 
confidence of his party, but eventually died in Kich- 
mond, Ya.,’ a member of the Confederate Congress. 

49. —Domestic Difficulties. The Dorr Rebell¬ 
ion was the result of partisan strife in Rhode Island, 
and two sets of state officers were elected. Gov. Dorr 
made an attack on the State Arsenal, but was defeat' 
ed, arrested, and after trial, sentenced in 1842, to im¬ 
prisonment for life. He was pardoned in 1845, and 
in the meantime the demands of the party once led 
by him had been conceded. The old “ Patroon ” 
rights in New York state had long been a source of 
disquietude, but in 1844 the difficulty came to open 
war. The anti-rent party lynched those who paid 
rent to the “Patroons,” and some officers were killed 
while serving processes. Military force suppressed 
the disturbance, and eventually the “ Patroons 
abandoned their light and almost forced demands for 
rent. 

50. — The Nauvoo War. The Mormons settled 
in Nauvoo,, Ill., in 1840, and built a city. They were 
followers of Joe Smith, who pretended to have found 
gold plates containing a Revelation from God; but 
nobody ever saw the plates. The practices of the 
Mormons excited enmity among the people surround¬ 
ing them, and in 1845, Smith, who had entrusted him¬ 
self to the civil authorities for defense, was taken out 
of their hands by a mob and murdered. The city 
was bombarded for three days, until the Mormons 




180 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

abandoned the position and fled, first to Iowa, next to 
Nebraska, and finally to Salt Lake. 

51. — Annexations and Settlements. Gen. 
Sam. Houston, wlio was elected President of the 
Texas Kepublic in 1836, applied for the admission of 
Texas to the Union in 1844, and after much debate 
in Congres and before the people, the state was admit¬ 
ted in the winter of 1844-5. The admission of the 
new state was favored by the Democrats, who nomi¬ 
nated Polk as President, and opposed by the Whigs, 
ydio put forward Clay ; the result was the reception 
of Texas and the election of President James K. Polk. 
The northwest boundary of the United States came 
into question in this term of office, but was not set¬ 
tled until the next, when 49° was agreed upon as a 
compromise of the claim of 54° 40'. 

FolJc and the Itepablic. 184:5-1840. 

52. — Gen. Taylor’s Campaign. The disputed ter¬ 
ritory on the Pio Grande was to be held by Gen. Tay¬ 
lor and his army, and he built Fort Brown as his base 
of supplies. The first fight occurred at Palo Alto, 
where an army cf 6,000 Mexicans, under Arista, drew 
up across the road and disputed the passage of the 
Americans. Gen. Taylor’s army consisted of 2,000 
men, but the attack was made instantaneously, and the 
enemy routed with great slaughter. Our force lost 
only nine men. The day following, at Pesaca de la 
Palma, the Mexicans were found in a deep ravine, 
blocking the road, a^d with their artillery in position 
to inflict considerable damage. The post was flanked 
by thickets, and generally had been well chosen. The 
guns were the main difficulty, but they were captured 
by Capt. May and his cavalry, and Gen. La Vega was 
made a prisoner at the same time. The infantry com¬ 
pleted the triumph, and the enemy crossed the Pio 
Grande in great disorder. 

53. — Capture of Monterey. Gen. Taylor car¬ 
ried this city and fortress by assault September 24, 
1846, with about 6,000 troops, the position being very 


UNITED STATES. 


181 


Strong hut poorly defended by the garrison of 10,000 
men. • The streets were barricaded, and the dwellings 
on either side filled with troops, who poured a deadly 
fire on the assailants, but that* difficulty was met by 
capturing the houses and opening a passage through 
the walls from one to the other. Some traveled along 
the roofs of the captured dwellings, and the city sur¬ 
rendered, the garrison being allowed the honors of war. 

—Victory at Buena Vista. Gen. Santa 
Anna wished to crush this army while a large detach¬ 
ment was away serving with Gen. Scott before Mexico, 
but he could not make his arrangements until Febru¬ 
ary 23, 1847. The mountain pass at Buena Vista was 
held by our forces, and they were attacked by Santa 
Anna in person with 20,000 picked men. The battle 
lasted all the day long, commencing at sunrise, and our 
infantry was overwhelmed by superior numbers, but 
the artillery rendered such effectual service under Gen. 
Bra^g, that the Mexican force was compelled to retire 
during the night, and Gen. Taylor had accomplished 
the work assigned to him. The justice of the war was 
hotly contested by Abraham Lincoln and others in 
Congress, but the execution was admitted to be admir¬ 
able. 

55. — Gen. Kearney’s army was under orders to 
conquer Kew Mexico and California, and his force 
started from Fort Leavenworth, in Kansas Territory, 
June, 1846, to make the journey to Santa Fe. Col. 
Doniphan headed the men on this march, and after two 
well fought battles, with 1,000 men under his orders, 
conquered the province and city of Chihuahua. From 
that point the march was continued towards California, 
but before his arrival the work had been all but accom¬ 
plished. Capt Fremont, with a small force, was in 
the California country the preceding winter, when he 
learned that the Spaniards were about to expel Amer¬ 
ican settlers, and he temporarily abandoned his work 
as an explorer and surveyor to rescue his countrymen 
from injustice. His conduct in this campaign added 


182 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

California to the United States. The Mexican forces, 
largel}^ superior in numbers, were routed in every con¬ 
flict, and by the aid of Gen. Kearney, who arrived in 
time to take part in the last battle, the conquest was 
completed. When Fremont first intervened he was not 
aware that war had been declared, but he was aided 
materially in his operations by Commodores Stockton 
and Sloat. 

56. — Gen. Scott’s campaign commenced at Yera 
Cruz, where he landed with 12,000 men on the 29th of 
March, 1847. The Mexicans did not oppose his land¬ 
ing, and after a bombardment which lasted four days, 
the city and castle of San Juan de Ulloa were surren- 
deied to our arms. 

57. —Cerro Gordo. Early in April the army 
began its march to the capital, but the. mountain pass 
of Cerro Gordo was strongly fortified by the enemy. 
The General conveyed his cannon by means of tackle 
up the face of the precipice into positions which com¬ 
manded the enemy’s lines, and an attack in front was 
commenced simultaneously with the cannonade, on the 
18th of xlpril. The effect was almost instantaneous, 
and Santa Anna very narrowly escaped capture at that 
point, 3,000 prisoners were taken, 5,000 stand of arms 
and 43 pieces of artillery. The moral effect of the 
victory was still greater then the material advantage, 
as other positions with large supplies of ammunition 
and guns were abandoned, Puebla and Perote were oc¬ 
cupied without resistance, and at the latter town 54 
cannon were captured. 

58. — Fall of Mexico. General Scott, having 
been reinforced, resumed his march with 11,000 men 
on the 7th of August, arriving on the crest of the Cor¬ 
dilleras on the 10th. From that point the capital 
ccvuld be seen, but there was a force of 30,000 men to 
dispute the approach, and numerous strong fortifica¬ 
tions. The least defended route was pursued, and 
Contreras, an entrenched camp, fourteen miles south 
of the city, was reached on the morning of the 19th. 


UNITED STATES. 


183 


The force under Gen. Valencia was defeated and the 
camp taken by assault. The operations of the army 
covered much ground during that day and the next, 
but on the evening of the 20th, the fugitives from 
many points had been pursued to within one mile and 
a half of the capital. Churubusco and San Antonio 
had been carried, 3,000 prisoners had been taken 
4,000 men had be|pn killed or wounded, the army was 
dispersed, 37 pieces of ordnance had been won, and 
there was nothing before the city but surrender. An 
armistice for negotiation was being improved by the 
Mexicans in strengthening their works, and in conse¬ 
quence, General Scott commanded an assault on the 
8th of September. The outworks were carried in suc¬ 
cession day after day until the Castle of Chapultepec, 
which commanded the city, was stormed on the 13th, 
and early on the following day. the army marched in¬ 
to the city, which the Spaniards had held since the 
fall of the Montezumas. Tne war was ended, although 
the treaty was not signed until the beginning of 
February, 1848, under which the vast territory reach¬ 
ing west to the Pacific Ocean and south to the Gila be¬ 
came part of the United States. 

59. — The Wilmot Pkoviso was introduced to 
Congress in 1846, by David Wilmot, of Pennsylvania, 
seeking to prohibit slavery in any territory that might 
be acquired during the war. The proposition pro¬ 
voked much debate in the country at large as well as 
in the House and Senate. 

60. — Gold in California. Gold was found in 
Sacramento Valley in February, 1848, immediately 
after the territory came into our possession, and within 
a few months emigration had commenced from all 
parts of the world. Since the Crusades, there had 
never been such an exodus, and San Francisco was 
speedily changed from a half sleeping Spanish seaport 
to the busiest hive in the world. The city did not im¬ 
mediately become beautiful as it now is, but the gain¬ 
ful industries commenced in those early days have 




184 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

since made California the world’s wonder. TJie gold 
itself may not have been a benefit to the state, as it 
has cost more in the procurement than the metal rea¬ 
lizes on sale, but the possession of such a population 
as that gathered in California makes amends for any 
such trivial drawback. Streets, banks, churches, 
halls, and gambling houses, provided for all that was 
good and evil in the people, who were crowded to¬ 
gether in the pursuit of gold, and when vice and erime 
outstripped organization, the work of repression and 
punishment was taken up by the orderly citizens, so 
that lawlessness found a curb in the genius of the com¬ 
munity for self government. The annexation of Cali¬ 
fornia proved to be one of the greatest events in the 
history of the world during the decade in which it 
happened. 

61. — Selecting a Successor showed that there 
were three parties in the eommunity ruled over by 
Martin Yan Buren. The Free Seilers renominated the 
President; the Democrats named Lewis Cass, as their 
choice, and the Whigs gave their suffrages to Gen. 
Zachary Taylor, whose services in Mexico made him 
a popular idol, and whose sterling qualities well de¬ 
served support. The Free Soilers were opposed to the 
extension of slavery, and most of the party were abo¬ 
litionists, but their day was not yet. Gen. Taylor was 
elected. 

Taylor and Fillmore and the Jtepuhlic. 1849-1853. 

62. — President Taylor died July 9, 1850, but 
his career in office fully justified the expectations of 
his friends. Upon his decease, Millard Fillmore be¬ 
came President, and his services were in every sense 
satisfactory to his supporters. 

63. — Clay’s Omnibus Bill was the great ques¬ 
tion of this era, and it arose upon the application of 
California to be admitted to the Union as a free state. 
The two parties, pro-slavery and abolition, not yet 
distinctly organized as such, were on the watch con¬ 
tinually, and the least observant could not fail to per- 


UNITED STATES. 


185 


ceive that before years there must be a crisis on 

that issue. Henry Clay strove for a peaceful solution 
of the difficulty and his compromise measure of 1860 
was temporaily accepted. It provided for the inclu¬ 
sion of California as a Free State, and the formation 
of two Territories, Utah and Hew Mexico, without 
any legislative intervention as to slavery. Texas was 
to be paid $10,000,000 to surrender its claims on New 
Mexico, the slave trade was prohibited in the District 
of Columbia and the Fugitive Slave Law was enacted. 
From our point of view there was much evil in such a 
measure, but the growth of public opinion warranted 
no more at that time. Daniel Webster was eloquent 
and impressive on this occasion, and both orators died 
within two years of the passage of that measure. 

64. — Fillibustering Exploit. Cuba, whose con¬ 
dition has long seemed as though a live man struggled 
in the rigid embrace of death, provoked in this term a 
fillibustering attempt at annexation, but the expedi¬ 
tion, in which six hundred men were active partici¬ 
pants, ended in total defeat and the leader was exe¬ 
cuted. 

65. — Franklin Pierce was nominated by the 
Democrats as the next President after Fillmore, and 
the President, against whom no one had anything to 
aver, was not renominated. Gen. Scott was put for¬ 
ward by the Whigs, and both parties bade for the sup¬ 
port of the pro-slavery Democrats, by upholding 
Clay’s compromise against which the more logical 
Free Soil party inveighed bitterly. The Democrats 
elected Franklin Pierce, The expedition to Japan en¬ 
hanced the value of Fillmore’s term of office, and as¬ 
sisted the spread of civilization and commerce in that 
country. 

Piercp and the Jtepithlic. 18n3-1857. 

66. — Stephen A. Douglas was the most promi¬ 
nent figure in American history after the great leaders 
passed awav, and his measure as to “Squatter Sover¬ 
eignty” in Kansas and Nebraska, in 1853-4, was the 



186 


COUXTETES OF NOETH AMEEICA. 


next compromise on the slavery question. The Mis¬ 
souri Compromise had been abandoned practically, 
before this time, as the pro-slavery men saw that the 
rapid growth of free states must work the ruin of 
their policy, unless their system was allowed indefinite 
expansion. The debate on the measure now to be 
carried provoked strong feeling and the violence of 
the supporters of the slavery policy was terribly illus¬ 
trated in an assault, murderous in its character, upon 
Charles Sumner by Preston S. Brooks. 

6 7. — Wae IX Kansas. The Territory of Kansas 
was to determine for or against slavery, by voting on 
the question under the “ Squatter Sovereignty ” clause 
of the settlement, and the consequence, as might have 
been anticipated, was war to the knife. President 
Pierce appointed governors who favored the policy 
under which he was elected, but every man sent by 
him to fill that office became at last an advocate of 
the cause of the Free State party in Kansas, so violent 
and unjustifiable were the proceedings of the other 
side in the Territory. Armed emigrants, sent from 
the Korthern states, eventually took the control of 
matters out of the hands of the Border Ruffians 
from Missouri and other states in the slave interest, so 
that on the election of President Lincoln Kansas was 
admitted to the Union as a Free State. 

68. — Foeeigx Policy. “ The Uadsden Purchase” 
secured to the United States a large area of country 
from Mexico at a cost of $10,000,000. This necessity 
arose in consequence of a dispute as to boundaries con¬ 
sequent on the use of foreign and erroneous maps in 
the former treaty, and the outlay named was better 
policy than armed intervention with a state so com¬ 
pletely humbled as Mexico. The expedition to Japan, 
under Commodore Perry, dispatched by the action of 
the foregoing administration, resulted in a commercial 
treaty of much value to the United States, which was 
ratified in 1854, and this movement was much ap¬ 
plauded. 


UNITED STATES. 


187 


— Slavery Tactics, and the movements rendered 
necessary thereby, more especially when the action of 
the proslavery party in Kansas became known, caused 
great excitement in every state during the Presidential 
carnpaign. Stephen A. Douglas expected the nomi¬ 
nation from the Democratic party, but finding that it 
would cause a division, he withdrew his name, and 
James Buchanan was elected on that platform. The 
Pepublicans, who had alread^^ superseded the Whigs as 
a party, went for Col. Fremont, who was largely sup¬ 
ported, and the American Party nominated Millard 
Fillmore. 

Jiuchaunn and the Jiepublic. ISol-lSGl. 

70. — The Deed Scott Case, fifiieFugitive Slave 
Lnw, added to the Kansas difficulty, had brought 
affairs to a veiy heated condition on the slavery issue, 
when the Dred Scott case arose, upon which Chief Jus¬ 
tice Taney decided in the Supreme Court of the United 
States that slave owners might carry their human chat¬ 
tels into any state in the Union without invalidating 
their rights in such property. With such an interpre¬ 
tation of the law staring them in the face, the public 
concluded that slavery must be dealt with by distinct 
enactments, and as vigorous administration, without 
delay. “Personal liberty’’bills were passed in some 
northern states, decreeing trial by jury for slaves arrest¬ 
ed within their boundaries, and disturbances were com¬ 
mon whenever slaves were arrested in the states indi¬ 
cated. The case of Scott and his wife called for much 
sympathy. 

71. — John Brown, at Harper’s Ferry, commanded 
still greater feeling. The old man had suffered terri¬ 
bly in Kansas, at the hands of the “ Border Puffians,” 
one of his sons being murdered, and another driven 
insane, and after rendering all the aid in his power to 
make Kansas a free state, he turned his attention to 
the general spread of abolition, lie was a religious 
enthusia.st of the highest type, descended from one of 
the Pilgrim families in the Mayflower, and he set no 




188 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

value upon his life, compared with the principle upon 
which he had concentrated his love. With two sons 
who had been with him in Kansas, and some friends, 
about twenty in all, he surprised and captured the, 
arsenal and armory at Harper’s Ferry, proclaiming! 
freedom to all slaves, on the 16th of October, 1859. 
The Virginia militia captured him and his friends on 
the 17th, before any assistance could reach him, and 
he, with all his party, suffered the penalties of the law. 
Captain John Brown, whose name will live in history, 
was hanged in Charleston, December 2, 1859. The 
man moved before public opinion was ripe. 

72. — Slavery or Secession was the issue broadly 

announced by the southern states during the fall cam¬ 
paign, in the year 1860, and but for division in the 
democratic ranks, the party might have elected Stephen 
A. Douglas. That leader had, however, become un¬ 
popular with the extreme section of his party, because 
he would not concede all their demands, and they 
divided in their nomination, one section sustaining 
Douglas and squatter soverignty, the other presenting 
John C. Breckenridge, with all the consequences of the 
Dred Scott decision. Breckenridge did not come near 
being elected, but his nomination destroyed the chance 
of Mr. Douglas, who procured on the popular vote 
1,365,976, against Lincoln’s 1,857,610, while Brecken¬ 
ridge carried 847,958. John Bell, of Tennessee, re¬ 
ceived 590,631 votes. Abraham Lincoln, who was at 
that time content to let slavery stand unmolested, but 
would not allow it to be carried into new territory, was 
elected. ’ 

73. — State Eights. The Southern States now 
made ready for secession, as they averred that the 
government was falling into the hands of their ene¬ 
mies. They held with Calhoun the doctrine of State 
Eights which involved full liberty to leave the Union 
at any time. The beginning, long prepared for, was 
made in December, 1860, when South Carolina passed 
an ordinance of secession, being followed by Alabama, 


UNITED STATES. 


189 


Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas. 
“The Confederate States of America” organized at 
Montgomery, Alabama, in February, 18G1, by electing 
officers. Jellerson Davis became President of the 
seceding states, and Alex. 11 Stephens, Vice President. 
Prest. Buchanan did nothing to avert the calamity of 
civil war now imminent, although Gen. Scott was urgent 
for action on the instant. LTnited States arms, build¬ 
ings and properties were seized as of rights and many 
supposed that the union would be broken without a 
struggle. 

74. — Major Anderson, \vho commanded the 
United States forces in South Carolina, moved from 
Fort jMoultrie to Fort Sumter because the latter bet¬ 
ter admitted of defense, and he anticipated the recep¬ 
tion of orders, but none came. The steamer winch, 
was to have given him reinforcements and supplies 
had been driven back by confederate forces from Fort 
^[oultrie. Buchanan was apparently too much afraid 
of the confederates to relieve the threatened fort, un¬ 
less by their permission, and they said that any de¬ 
cisive act in that direction would commence the war. 
Under such circumstances, and in imminent peril of 
assassination, the new President went to his inaugura¬ 
tion. 

Independence to Secession. 1770-1861. 

75. — The Struggle to maintain the integrity of 
the Union being on the threshold, we may as well 
consider what were the forces to be encountered. 
When the famous declaration was signed and sub¬ 
stantiated, there were thirteen states in the Union, and 
since that time twenty-one had been constituted and 
admitted. 

76. — Vermont, or Green Mountain, came four¬ 
teenth on the roll, March 4, 1791. First explored by 
Champlain in 1609, it was not settled until 1724. 
There were disputes as to territorial rights before 1776, 
and some blood had been shed in the quarrel between 
New Uampshire and New York, but in 1777, the in- 




190 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

habitants claimed to be an independent state. New 
York relinquished her claims for $30,000 in 1791, and 
Vermont was the first state to come in under the con¬ 
stitution. 

77. — Kentucky, the arena of Daniel Boone’s ex¬ 
ploits, came next in order, being admitted June 1, 
1792. The battles with the Indians on this territory, 
gave to the region the title of “ The dark and bloody 
ground.” Boonesfeorough was the first settlement 
here, but Virginia then engrossed the whole of this 
section of country until 1790. There were many at¬ 
tempts to set up an independent organization, but 
without substantial results until 1790, when, under 
the Constitution, Kentucky was made a territory. 
When admitted as a state, there were about 75,000 
inhabitants in Kentucky. 

78. —Tennessee, named from “The River with 
the Grreat bend,” was the sixteenth state. The first 
permanent settlement south of Pennsylvania and west 
of the Alleghanies was made at Fort London, near the 
site of Knoxville, Tenn., in 1756. The next, wdthin 
this area, was made in 1780, where now Nashville 
flourishes. North Carolina surrendered her claim to 
the territory in 1789, and after being joined to Ken¬ 
tucky for a time, Tennessee w^as admitted to the 
Union June 1, 1796. 

79. — Ohio, so called from “ The Beautiful River,” 
came in as the seventeenth, the first in the Gfreat 
Northwest, Nov. 29, 1802. Baron La Salle was the 
first European explorer, and the first settlement was 
made at Marietta in 1788. 

80. — Louisiana, the eighteenth state, named after 
the French King, was admitted April 8, 1812. Father 
Marquette led the way to the Mississippi, under infor¬ 
mation procured from the Indians, and Baron La Salle 
continued the exploration, giving the name of Louisi¬ 
ana to a large area of country, but no permanent set¬ 
tlement was made until 1699, at Biloxi, near the 
mouth of the river, and, in 1712, New Orleans was 


UNITED STATES. 


191 


founded. The territory passed into the hands of 
Spain in 1762, but Napoleon procured the title from 
the Spaniards in 1800, and sold the area to us for 
$15,000,000, in 1803. AVhen Louisiana was admitted 
as a state, the remainder of that country was known 
as the Territory of Missouri. This state seceded. 

81. — Indiana came in on the 11th of December, 
1816, having been constituted a territory within its 
present limits in 1809. Indian difficulties retarded its 
growth, but its progress became rapid after 1810. 
dTiis, the second state in the Northwest, is the nine¬ 
teenth in the Union. 

82. — Mississippi, named from the greatest river 
known to commerce, the twentieth state in the Union, 
was admitted December 10, 1817. De Soto was the 
first explorer. Settlements, established by the French 
in 1700 and 1703, were destroyed by the Indians in 
1728, and there were fierce wars with the tribes in con¬ 
sequence. The Mississippi Territory was constituted 
in 1798, and the Alabama Territory was cut off in 
March, 1817. Mississippi seceded. 

83. —Illinois, named from the “Eiver of Men,’^ 
was in the territory first visited by Marquette, followed 
by La Salle; but the territory so named was much 
larger than the state which was admitted December 3, 
1818 — the third in the Northwest, twenty-first in the 
Union. The Indians were very pertinacious in their 
hostility to the first settlers, but the Black Hawk war 
ended such difficulties. Chicago is the metropolis of 
the Northwest, and its growth seems almost miracu¬ 
lous. 

84. — Alabama came in December 14, 1819, num¬ 
bering itself the twenty-second state. The Creek In¬ 
dians, of whom Cen. Jackson disposed, were great 
enemies of the early settlers. The name “ Here we 
rest” must have seemed a mockery to the pioneers. 
The first settlement dates from 1702, at Bienville Fort, 
and Mobile, on the bay of that name, was founded in 
1711, being for many years the capital of the French 





192 COUKTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA.' 

possessions in Louisiana. Gen. Wilkinson took pos¬ 
session of this area in 1813, but terms of purchase 
were concluded with Spain six years later. This state 
was strong for secession in 1860, and later. 

85. — Maine was originally associated with Massa¬ 
chusetts and New Hampshire, being part of the grant 
to Gorges and Mason from the Council of New Eng¬ 
land at Plymouth. Maine subsequently remained in 
Gorges family’s possession until his grandson, in 1677, 
sold his rights to Massachusetts for $6,750. That 
state relinquished its claims in 1820, when the state 
came in, the twenty-third in the Union. 

86. — Missouri, deriving its name from “Muddy 
Water,” was admitted, August 10, 1821, the twenty- 
fourth in the Union. St. Genevieve, the earliest set¬ 
tlement in the territory, dates from 1755, but our in¬ 
terest in the soil dates only from the purchase in 1803. 
The Territory of Missouri dates from the admission of 
Louisiana to the Union in 1812, but the dimensions of 
Missouri were fixed by the Missouri Compromise, in 
1821, under which the state was admitted. There 
were additions made to the state subsequently. Mis¬ 
souri was in sympathy with the Southern Confederacy, 
but the state did not secede. 

87. — Arkansas, named from an Indian tribe, en¬ 
tered the Union, June 15, 1836, being discovered in 
1635, and settled by the French, in 1670, near St. 
Francis Eiver. This, the twenty-fifth state in the 
Union, seceded March 4, 1861, but, before the close of 
1863, the government of the country was in the hands 
of United States troops, and it continued to be under 
a military government until 1868, when Congress re¬ 
admitted the state into the Union. 

88. — Michigan dates as a state from January 26, 
1837. Fur traders and Jesuit missionaries were the 
first white visitors to this region, and Detroit was 
founded from Canada in 1701. Organized as a ter¬ 
ritory in 1805; the boundaries of the state were fixed 
at the time of admission, and Michigan is the twenty- 
sixth state. 


UNITED STATES. 


193 


89. — Florida, one of the seceders, was organized 
as a territory in March, 1819, when the purchase from 
Spain had been consummated, and was admitted 
March 8, 1845. This was the twenty-seventh state. 
Its early history has been given in connection with the 
Seminole war. 

90. — Texas was first explored by Ponce De Leon, 
afterwards by La Salle, who founded settlements at 
Matagorda Bay, and built a French fort on the Lavaca. 
Spain established missions here, but failed to civilize 
the country or the people. So that there was no 
town worthy of the name in 1820, when a native of 
Connecticut commenced to attract emigrants to a 
grant procured from Mexico. Within ten years there 
were 20,000 Americans in Texas, and Mexico becom¬ 
ing jealous and oppressive, the people organized a 
revolution, defeated Santa Anna, became a republic 
under President Houston and so continued until ad¬ 
mitted to the Union in December, 1845. Texas was 
one of the first to secede, and was twenty-eighth in 
the Union. 

91. — Iowa came in December 28, 1846. The 
.name signifying in the Indian tongue “Drowsy Ones,” 

does not describe the people. Dubuque, a French 
Canadian miner, was the first to discover the value of 
the country near the city which bears his name, and 
procured a grant of land from the Indians, as well as 
permission to mine from the Spanish authorities in this 
country. He .carried on lead mining until his death, 
transporting the lead to St. Louis, Missouri, and he 
was also a trader. After his death in 1810, the 
mines were at first worked by the Indians and then 
abandoned until 1832, when the mines were again 
worked until the miners were dispossessed by military 
orders pending the opening of the territory for settle¬ 
ment. Dubuque was founded in 1833. Iowa, the 
twenty-ninth state, was reduced to its present limits 
at the time of its admission. 

92. — Wisconsin, once part of Louisiana, then of 

13 




194 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

Illinois, then of Michigan, and afterwards of Iowa 
territory, was the thirtieth state, and was admitted 
May 29, 1848. The first exploration dates from 1639, 
and first settlement at Grreen Bay from 1745. It 
became a territory in 1836. The name in the Indian 
tongue signifies “ Grathering of the Waters.” The 
ravages of Black Hawk and his warriors were in part 
experienced in AVisconsin. 

93. — California was visited by Sir Francis Drake 
in pursuit of Spanish treasure ships in 1578-9, and he 
wintered in San Francisco Bay. The Spaniards estab¬ 
lished missions here at San Diego in 1769, and at San 
Francisco in 1776, but in 1835 there was only one 
habitation near the bay. The monks had the entire 
management of the country until the Mexican revolu¬ 
tion in 1822 upset the Spanish power. The white 
population of the territory in 1831 was under 5,000, 
but after 1843, there was some emigration from this 
country, and the possession was eventually wrested 
from Mexico by Capt. Fremont and Gen. Kearney, 
to become one of the most prosperous states in the 
Union. Mexico ceded the territory to us at the close 
of the war. The area thus added to the United States 
embraced what is now known as California, Nevada, 
Arizona, Utah, parts of Colorado and New Mexico; 
in all about 450,000 square miles; with variations of 
soil and climate capable of producing all the vegetal 
treasures of the globe. Nearly all of these advantages 
are being improved. California came into the Union 
September 9, 1850, and is numbered as the thirty-first 
state. 

94, — Minnesota, from the Indian “Cloudy AYa- 
ter,” takes its name from the river. La Salle and 
Father Hennepin were first explorers in 1680, but 
Fort Snelling only dates from 1819, and St. Paul was 
founded in 1846, the territory being organized three 
years later, but rapid growth was not entered upon un¬ 
til the Sioux ceded a considerable area to the United 
States in 1851. The state was admitted Alay 11, 1858, 
numbered as the thirty-second in the Union. 


UNITED STATES. 


195 


— Oregon, named from the Spanish for Wild 
Marjoram, which is plentiful on the coast, was part of 
the land purchavsed in 1803 from Napoleon, while Jef¬ 
ferson was President, and Madison the Minister to 
France. The Columbia Eiver was partially explored 
in 1792 by Capt. Gray in the ship Columbia, from 
Boston, who reported in glowing terms as to the coun¬ 
try, and the explorers Clark and Lewis, in 1804, were 
sent by President Jefferson along the Missouri to the 
head waters, and thence to the Pacific by the Colum¬ 
bia Eiver. The operations of the American Fur Com¬ 
pany followed speedily upon the publication of their 
romantic adventures in a country hardly trodden by 
white men before their work commenced, and in 1839 
American emigration began. The northwest boundary 
settlement in 1846 aided the growth of population, and 
organization as a territory followed in two jmars. Lib¬ 
eral grants of land by Congress promoted colonization, 
and on February 14, 1859, the thirty-third state was 
admitted; Washington Territory having been organ¬ 
ized north of the Columbia Eiver, in 1853. 

96. — Kansas came into the union through fire 
and blood, after the secession of that element which 
had struggled so desperately to possess the soil and 
construct thereon a slave state. Clark and Lewis were 
the first white visitors in modern days, although there 
is a probability that both French and Spaniards were 
here in much earlier times. This also was part of the 
land purchased from the Emperor Napoleon; and the 
explorations by Fremont, the Mexican War, the Mor¬ 
mon exodus, the Sante Fe trade and the gold fever in 
California, led toward settlement, which was deferred 
under an erroneous impression that much of the land 
was a desert. Slavery had been introduced into the 
territory in defiance of the Missouri Compromise be¬ 
fore the Kansas-Nebraska bill was introduced by 
Douglas, and from the beginning Missouri was resolved 
upon the establishment of a slave state in Kansas. 
The war that was commenced so bitterly on that area 




196 


COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


was fought out on a wider field, to an end which none 
but enthusiasts of the John Brown type thought possi¬ 
ble within our generation. Kansas oi’ganized by Act 
of Congress in 1851, was not admitted to the union un¬ 
til President Buchanan had given place to his incom¬ 
parably greater successor, Abraham Lincoln, on the 
29th of January, 1861, thus closing the record before 
the war with thirty-four states enrolled, 

97. — A Comparative Study of the states seced¬ 
ing, and of those that were resolved to uphold the 
union, should have convinced an impartial observer on 
which side victory would rest, assuming a like earnest¬ 
ness on the question at issue, on either hand; but 
much, after all, depended upon careful and statesman¬ 
like management of our affairs, so that public opinion 
should not be shocked by violent action, which might 
have reacted against our success. Wealth, population, 
philosophy and right were on our side ; but on the 
other were brave men, trained to statesmanship, to ne¬ 
gotiation and to war, who had long controlled the re¬ 
sources of the union, with the expectation of such a 
time supervening, and who had arranged the forces 
and supplies at that moment expressly to suit their 
aims ; unchecked, if not absolutely assisted by Presi¬ 
dent Buchanan. Abraham Lincoln was called to the 
work of a giant, and he was equal to the task. 

The Itehellion — Lhicoln and the Itepuhlic. ISGl-lSGi*. 

98. — -Lawless Designs were so apparent when 
the day approached for inaugurating the new Presi¬ 
dent, that It was found necessary for Air. Lincoln to 
expedite his movements and arrive in Washington 
before the schemes of his enemies were ready for exe¬ 
cution. The rumor that he travelled in disguise 
through the disaffected state is a popular fallacy ; he 
only passed through before he was expected and that 
course of action better suited every good purpose. The 
inauguration of the President was a solemn event in 
the history of the union, and the troops under Gen. 
Scott were no idle form in that pageant. None could 


UNITED STATES. 


197 


tell in what quarter clanger might; even then be lurk¬ 
ing, and there was a delusive confidence in the tone of 
the confederate party. Officers in both arms of the 
service were resigning to join their fortunes with those 
of the seceding states. It was believed that the union 
party was strong in the north, although circumstances 
kept them comparatively silent for a time, and the 
great majority still hoped that war would not become 
inevitable. The government must carry with it pub¬ 
lic opinion, and that is not the view of the foremost 
thinker, but the resultant from many minds; hence, 
the necessity for such cautious procedure as woulcl 
keep from the skirts of the administration the stain of 
precipitating strife. If bloodshed must come, the re¬ 
sponsibility should rest on the other side. That line of 
policy made the early days of President Lincoln’s 
government seem hesitating and weak, when truly he 
was pausing in wisdom and mercy, hoping against 
hope that some means might be devised to save the 
union without a baptism of fire. There was vigor on 
the other side, and every sound of preparation. Arms 
and arsenals had been seized and appropriated, troops 
were on the march, recruits were coming in with en¬ 
thusiasm, money and supplies were voted, and a vigor¬ 
ous prosecution of the war, if war it was to be, was 
freely promised by men who still retained their seats 
in congress. 

99. — The First Gun in the era of strife was fired 
against Fort Sumter, on Friday morning April 12, 
1861, and the war had commenced. The unarmed 
steamer, sent with supplies during the last days of 
President Buchanan, had been fired upon and driven 
back, but the friend of the confederacy saw no ground 
for further action, so that there were only seventy men 
scantily provisioned in Fort Sumter, opposed to fully 
seven thousand, backed by the whole force of the 
seceding states. There had come into the presidential 
office, a friend to the union, and he, after a careful sur¬ 
vey of all the facts, concluded that the fort must be 





198 


COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


reinforced and supplied, peacefully if possible, but at 
any rate the duty must be accomplished. That fact 
being known, the commander of the confederate troops, 
Gen. Beauregard, demanded the surrender of the fort, 
and upon Maj. Anderson’s refusal there was a cannon¬ 
ade, which lasted thirty-four hours, the barracks were 
set on fire by shot and shell, the garrison was exhaust¬ 
ed in a fruitless contest, and capitulation with the hon¬ 
ors of war ended that fight. The garrison saluted 
their flag before they lowered it to the enemy, and the 
north was united as one man. Democrats and Repub¬ 
licans were now prepared for war ; the Rubicon was 
passed. Lincoln called for 75,000 troops, his old rival 
and quondam enemy, Douglas, urged upon him to in¬ 
crease the requisition, and defended his course before 
the Democratic party ; his dying words to his sons 
soon after were: “ Obey the laws and support the 

constitution of the United States.” Three hundred 
thousand volunteers answered the call for aid, the 
flag, lowered at Fort Sumter, w^as raised all over the 
north, evoking the spirit of ’76, and the best men were 
ready to march to the front. 

100. — The South was inflamed by the first vic¬ 
tory and looked forward with enthusiasm through the 
smoke and din of battle to a result which might justi¬ 
fy the terrible arbitrament. Virginia joined the con¬ 
federacy closely followed by Arkansas, North Caro¬ 
lina and Tennessee, the armory at Harper’s Ferry and 
the navy yard at Norfolk were seized by the Vir¬ 
ginian troops, and Richmond was made the capital, 
Washington w^as in danger, and a regiment of Massa¬ 
chusetts militia marching to aid in its defense, was 
attacked in Baltimore city, on the anniversary of the 
battle of Lexington, a number of men being killed. 
The war had commenced in earnest. 

101. — The War Beginning. Virginia was the 
scene of operations, because the Capital of the Union 
must be protected, and Col. Elmer E. Ellsworth with 
his zouaves occupied Alexandria, who was shot at the 


UNITED STATES. 


199 


very beginning of the conflict. . Arlington Heights 
opposite the Capital were seized by national troops on 
the 2-ith of May, 1861. Fortress Monroe at the en¬ 
trance of the Chesapeake was garrisoned under Gen. 
Butler, and soon 4fterwards an expedition was sent 
against Big Bethel, where the confederates had fortifi- 
cations. Several forces were dispatched at midnight 
June 9, 1861, by Gen. Butler, to make the assault on 
the following morning; but the different bodies mis¬ 
took each other for enemies in the uncertain light and 
the assault failed, after causing the United States a 
loss of one hundred men. The confederate force, un¬ 
der Col. Magruder, immediately fell back to York- 
town. 

102. — Union Yictoeies were rare in the first 
year of the war; the troops were raw levies, enthusi¬ 
astic but untrained, and there is an apprenticeship 
necessary for officers and men before even the bravest 
can look unmoved upon the probability of instant 
death, leaving the care of those dearest and best loved 
to the sympathies of strangers. Western Virginia was 
loyal to the union, but it was held by confederate forces, 
and a series ot engagements at Philippi, Kich Mountain 
and Carrick s Ford, under the command of Gen. Mc¬ 
Clellan, won the whole state for the union. The Con¬ 
federates under Wise and Floyd tried to recover the 
lost ground, but Kosecrans attacked the ex-War Sec¬ 
retary at Carnifex Ferry, Gov. Wise did not give sup¬ 
port to Floyd, and there was another defeat for the 
seceders. Gen. Lee tried to sustain the failing cause, 
but his repulse at Cheat Mountain was not followed 
by any decisive gain for his side, and the union re¬ 
mained master in Virginia to the end of 1861. 

103. — On to Richmond was the cry of the inex¬ 
perienced public, and the battle of Bull Run July 21, 
resulted from a desire to satisfy that impatient demand. 
Gen. McDowell commanded the Armj^of the Potomac, 
and the opposing forces were each about 30,000. Tffie 
confederates were driven from the field in the beginning 





200 COUNTEIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

of tlie fight, but they were rallied by the example of 
Stonewall Jackson, and a reinforcement from Win¬ 
chester coming up before the continuing contest could 
be ended, caused a panic among our men, such as hap¬ 
pily never occurred again during the war. The north 
was cast down but not dismayed ; the war must be a 
trial of strength and moral purpose among men consti¬ 
tutionally unused to surrender, and an effort propor¬ 
tioned to the purpose must be made. Congress voted 
five hundred thousand men and $500,000,000 for the 
service, and McClellan was made Commander of the 
Army of the Potomac. His promotion to the com¬ 
mand-in-chief followed shortly after. 

lO-t. — Col. Baker, Senator from Oregon, one of 
the ablest and best men on the side of the union, fell 
at Ball’s Bluff, October 21, in an action in which a re- 
connoitering party of 2,000 was overwhelmed by su¬ 
perior numbers ; but a victory at Dranesville, after a 
spirited engagement December 20, restored the courage 
of the Federals, when all around looked dark. 

105. — Missouri remained neutral in spite of at¬ 
tempts to carry a secession ordinance; but the troops of 
both parties selected this ground for many battles. 
Gen. Lyon, with a small federal force, broke up Camp 
Jackson, defeated an attempt on the Union Arsenal at 
St. Louis, and on the 17th of June routed a confeder¬ 
ate force of 2,500 men in an entrenched camp atBoone- 
ville, capturing guns, clothing and camp equipage. 
Gen. Sigel, outnumbered by the combined forces of 
the confederates under Jackson and Price, after a well 
fought battle, was compelled to retire on Carthage and 
Sarcoxie on the 5th of July, and Lyon, left unsup¬ 
ported, chose to attack the armies of Price and Mc- 
Culloeh at Wilson’s Creek on the 10th of August. He 
fell leading a bayonet charge in that unsuccessful ac¬ 
tion and Col. Mulligan was subsequently compelled to 
surrender Lexington. Gen. Fremont assuming the 
command, forced the confederates under Price to re¬ 
treat to Springfield, but he was superseded by Hunter 


UNITED STATES. 


201 


before a decisive battle could be fought. Gen. Halleck, 
'who soon succeeded Hunter, continued the course com¬ 
menced by Fremont, and Price retreated to Arkansas. 
On the 6th of November Gen. Grant, with 4,000 troops 
descended the Mississippi river, from Cairo, and on the 
following morning drove the confederates from their 
camp at Belmont, after a prolonged engagement, and 
destroyed the camp with all its contents; but strong 
reinforcements from Columbus under Polk, coming to 
the rescue of the enemy. Grant was eventually driv¬ 
en back to his boats, without losing a gur, and carry¬ 
ing with him artillery captured during the assault; 
thus the year ended favorably for the union in Mis¬ 
souri. 

106. — Coast and Sea offered a field for opera¬ 
tions, of which Jefferson Davis proposed to avail him¬ 
self by issuing commissions to privateers, and in con¬ 
sequence the southern ports were blockaded. The 
Union navy had been scattered all around the world 
by the Buchanan administration, and of the forty-two 
ships in commission, there was but one efficient vessel 
on the northern coast. Before the end of 1861, the 
navy consisted of 204 ships of war. The Savannah 
privateer was the first to sail under the confederate 
flag, and she was captured after making only one prize. 
The Petrel was sunk by the St. Lawrence, having mis¬ 
taken a war frigate for an unarmed merchant ship, and 
Capt. Semmes sold the Sumter in Gibralter Bay to 
prevent her falling into our hands. The forts at Hat- 
teras Inlet, N. C., were captured by a joint attack of 
land and sea forces, and a similar combination carried 
Tybee Island, at the mouth of the Savannah, and Port 
Koval Entrance, S. C., which became the depot of the 
Union fleet. 

107. —Belligerent Rights had been conceded 
by England and France to the Confederates, and the 
South, hoping for foreign aid, sent Commissioners Sli¬ 
dell and Mason to those courts. The British steamer 
Trent was boarded by Capt. Wilkes of the San Jacinto, 






202 COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

and the Commissioners captured; but the general gov¬ 
ernment disavowed the act, and the prisoners were set 
at liberty. France and Louis Napoleon would have 
joined England in rendering aid to the Confederates, 
but the English government was held in check by 
public opinion, and it was desirable that the sympa¬ 
thies of the British people should be carried with us 
through the war. 

108. —The End of 1861 showed a somewhat mixed 
result. The losses at Harper’s Ferry and Norfolk 
were material, but they were not defeats for our arms, 
such as we had sustained at Bull Bun and Wilson’s 
Creek. There had been reverses also at Big Bethel, 
Lexington, and Ball’s Bluff. Carthage, not a defeat, 
had compelled a retrograde movement, and the bril¬ 
liant affair at Belmont was not entirely a success; 
still on the whole these were compensations. Our 
men were becoming trained to war, and that was every¬ 
thing in the great result. Fort Pickens, near Pensa¬ 
cola, had been saved to the Union by a wise concen¬ 
tration of force, and Fort Monroe, on Old Point Com¬ 
fort, Ya., was also in our hands, as also Hatteras Inlet 
and Port Royal. Missouri, Maryland and West Yir- 
ginia had been rescued from the secessionists, and be¬ 
sides winning the battles of Philippi, Rich Mountain, 
Booneville, Garrick’s Ford, Cheat Monniain, Carnifex 
Ferry, and Dranesville, the whole South had been 
thrown into a state of siege, shut in by armies on land, 
and by a formidable blockade upon the coast. 

109. — Looking Ahead. The force voted by Con¬ 
gress, half a million of men, had been raised to meet 
the Confederate force of 350,000. The disparity was 
not overpowering, but it gave an earnest of the inex¬ 
haustible power, back of our half million, which could 
be drawn upon as a reserve force to the bitter end. ' 
The campaign on our side began with three purposes,|j 
opening the Mississippi, completely closing all south 
ern ports, and capturing Richmond, the capital of the 
Confederacy. Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, on the 


UNITED STATES. 


203 


Tennessee and Cumberland rivers^ must be captured, 
and impregnable Columbus opened to our troops, so 
that there was no child’s play before our heroes. Cum¬ 
berland Gap, Mill Spring, and Bowling Green were 
also strong positions in Confederate hands, and it was 
hoped that if the Tennessee Eiver could be carried, 
there would be valuable results before the commence¬ 
ment of 1862. 

110. — On the Tennessee. Gen. Grant and 
Com. Foote, with the army and gunboats, moved 
from Cairo, Feb. 2d, and on the 6th the combined 
attack was to be made on Fort Henry; but before the 
army could come up the fort surrendered, and the 
truo[)s driven out l.)y the bombardment escaped to 
Fort Donelson, increasing its defense by 3,000 men. 
The General in command and 70 men were taken with 
the works. Grant moved upon Fort Donelson on the 
12th, having waited until the gunboats had been re¬ 
paired. The force to be assailed was very strong, 
having been reinforced by the Confederate Generals 
Pillow, Buckner and Floyd, and the battle lasted 
three days. Fighting began on the 13th, when after a 
vigorous cannonading an assault was made, and re¬ 
pulsed. On the 14th, reinforcements to the number 
of 10 000 men joined Grant, and the gunboats hav¬ 
ing come up, the battle was renewed, but before 
the afternoon closed Com. Foote was compelled to re¬ 
tire with the gunboats, and the lines of investment by 
land were drawn closer. On the 15th the Confederate 
Generals tried to cut their way through Grant’s force, 
but their aim had been divined and they were driven 
back with considerable loss. An advance along the 
whole line forced the defenders back within their 
works, with no alternative but surrender. Pillow and 
Floyd made their escape, and the surrender devolved 
upon Buckner. Grant was ready on the 16th for a 
general attack, but with early dawn came a messenger 
asking for an armistice and terms of capitulation. 
The reply was worthy of Grant: “ JSTo terms but un- 




204 COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

conditional surrender can be accepted. I propose to 
move upon your works at once.” The surrender was 
made on those conditions, and the fort, with 10,000 
prisoners, 48 guns and large quantities of ammunition, 
fell into our hands Feb. "iGth. The consequence was 
as had been anticipated, that Bowling Green and Co¬ 
lumbus were abandond by the enemy and Buell took 
possession of Nashville. Corinth was the next rally¬ 
ing point of the Confederates, and Gens. Johnson and 
Beauregard concentrated their strength at that point, 
the railroad center of Mississippi and Tennessee. 
Grant in command ascended to Pittsburg Landing, 
and Buel was to come up with reinforcements. The 
Memphis and Charleston Kailroad was to be secured 
by our forces, and the enemy saw the purpose to be 
important. 

111 . — Pittsburg Landing. Grant, who had 
won the first great success of the war, was now Major 
General, but subordinate to Halleck, and he was com¬ 
manded not to attack Corinth. He encamped at Shi¬ 
loh with 38,000 men, and waited for Buell. Five 
thousand of his troops were beyond supporting dis¬ 
tance, when the Confederates, 50^000 strong, advanced 
from Corinth to crush Grant before he could procure 
reinforcements. The slaughter was terrible, and the 
national forces slowly retired to the river, where they 
were held by Grant until dark, when Buell’s force 
began to arrive. The guns were worked all night 
upon the Confederate camp, and early on the follow¬ 
ing day Grant, with the combined forces, drove the 
enemy back to Corinth. Johnson was slain, and 
Beauregard returned with a loss of 11,000 men. The 
loss on our side had been very severe, but the ground 
fought over was in our hands, and although the sur¬ 
prise had been a severe shock, the i^resiige of victory 
remained with our forces. The evacuation of Corinth 
and its possession by Halleck on the 80th of May, 
was a consequence of the desperate struggle on the 
6th and 7th of April, as no fighting had since that 
time occurred. 


UNITED STATES. 


205 


11 2. — Results of Siitloii. AVlien the confeder¬ 
ates abandoned Columbus, they occupied Island No. 
10, in the ^[ississippi, where they were bombarded for 
three weeks by Coin. Foote; but the surrender of the 
force, 7,000 strong, on the day of the victory at Shi- 
loli, was compelled by the action of Gen. Pope. The 
troops of the south bad been concentrated at Corinth, 
and New Orleans was left almost unprotected. The 
Confederate iron clad fleet was defeated on the river 
by the Union gunboats, Afay 10th. Fort Pillow fell 
immediately after Corinth, the Alernphis and Charles¬ 
ton Pail road was secured, Alemphis was taken, and 
the Confederate flotilla in front of Alemphis destroyed 
by our gunboats ; and indeed Kentucky and all west¬ 
ern Tennessee were in our possession. From Alem- 
j)his almost to Chattanooga our line was unbroken, 
and Buell was on the advance to the point last named. 
Bragg, Price and Van Dorn, the Confederate Generals 
at Chattanooga, luka and Holly Springs, were under 
an imperative necessity to break our line or retreat. 
They chose the former alternative. 

113 . — Battle at Pekkyville. Gen. Bragg ad¬ 
vanced with 50,000 men, and Buell retired to Nash¬ 
ville, where, having ascertained that his opponent 
meant to reach Louisville, he made a forced march of 
three hundred miles to cut off Gen. Bragg, beating him 
by just one day. Buell being reinforced had now 
100,000 men under his commiind. Grant had sent 
every veteran that could be spared, and Bragg slowly 
retreated to Perryville, where a desperate light oc¬ 
curred on the 8th of October. Bragg drew off during 
the night succeeding the battle, carryilig a vast quan¬ 
tity of plunder which had been gathered on his march, 
and Gen. Buell was superseded by Posecrans on the 
last day of October. The retreat from Kentuckj^ was 
now inevitable. 

114 . — luKA and Corinth. While Grant was 
weakened by the absence of the men sent to assist 
Buell, Price and Van Dorn meditated the recap- 




206 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

ture of Corinth. Grant had also a design, and he 
moved upon luka Sept. 19, hoping to capture Price; 
but liosecrans did not carry out his instructions, and 
Price escaped ; and to that extent the victory was in¬ 
complete; but the Confederates lost nearly 1,500 men. 
The Confederate Generals then carried out their 
scheme and made a combined assault on Corinth with 
40,000 men. Grant strengthened the fortifications and 
directed the defense which resulted in another Con¬ 
federate defeat on the 3d and 4th of October, followed 
up by the battle of the Hatchie on the 5th, the losses 
of the enemy being more than 6,000 men. 

115 . — Eosecrans at Murfreesboro. Before 
abandoning Kentucky, Bragg determined upon a final 
effort, and advanced with 60,000 men to Murfreesboro, 
where he was met by Eosecrans Dec. 31. The Con¬ 
federate right, strengthened for the purpose, attacked 
the Union right, which had been weakened to carry 
out a similar project of assaults by Eosecrans; and the 
assault would have been fatal but for the courage of 
Gen. Sheridan, who held his men together until Eose¬ 
crans could reform his order of battle. The Confed¬ 
erates advanced four times after the first assault, but 
were defeated with great slaughter. On the 2d of 
January, 1863, Bragg renewed the battle, but after one 
of the most sanguinary contests of the war, one-fourth 
of the united forces being destroyed in the two days fight¬ 
ing, he was compelled to retreat and to stand only upon 
the defensive. Kentucky was beyond recovery, and 
the way was open for further advances on Chattanooga. 

116 . — Moving against Vicksburg. Maj. Gen. 
Grant moved into Mississippi on the 2d of November, 
to threaten Vicksburg in the rear with 30,000 men, 
while Sherman attacked the place by the river with 
40,000, descending from Memphis. Grant had reached 
Oxford, fifty miles in advance, when Col. Murphy 
surrendered Holly Springs to Gen. Van Dorn’s cav¬ 
alry. Murphy was dismissed from the army for his 
incompetency, or worse; but the campaign had to be 


UNITED STATES. 


207 


abandoned. Sherman, unaware of this change, made 
his attack at Chickasaw Baj^oa, but was defeated with 
great loss. Arkansas Post was captured by Sherman 
on the 11th of January, 1863, and the campaign of 
1862, on the Mississippi, was closed by that act. Mis 
souri was still the scene of operations, but Gen. Curtis 
drove Gen. Price into Arkansas in February, 1863, 
and when Van Dorn, with a command of 20,000, at¬ 
tempted to recover the lost ground, he was totally de¬ 
feated at Pea Pidge, March 7-8, and no further import¬ 
ant battles were fought in Missouri. 

117. — Fakragut at New Orleans. The south¬ 
ern armies being concentrated at Corinth, left New 
Orleans an eas}^ prey to our arms; but the defenses 
on the sea front were tremendous. As soon as the 
capture was resolved upon, Commodore Farragut was 
nominated to the command. His preparations and his 
orders for the attack were worthy of the success that 
was achieved: he left nothing to accident, and no mis¬ 
hap marred his victory. His fleet of forty-four ves¬ 
sels carried 8,000 men under Gen. Butler. The de¬ 
fenses at the mouth of the river were bombarded for 
some days, but at length it was concluded to run in 
past the forts and come to close quarters with the city. 
The daring movement was eminently successful. 
Shot, shell, and fire rafts, failed to destroy the Union 
fleet, and the Confederate force of thirteen armed 
steamers, the steam battery Louisiana, the Pam Ma¬ 
nassas, and the forts at short range, were all in turn 
vanquished, and twelve of the flotilla destroyed. The 
city was then defenseless under our guns, and the forts, 
menaced from the rear, surrendered. Thus New Or¬ 
leans was reached and conquered through an array of 
defenses which, to that day, had been deemed invinci¬ 
ble. The Commodore proceeded up the river in the 
summer of 1862, ran the Vicksburg batteries, passing 
through the awful fire of the forts at Port Hudson, 
and joined Flag Officer Porter in command of the fleet 
on the Upper Mississippi, assisting in the capture of 






208 COUNTEIES OF NOETH AMEEICA. 

Port Hudson, as he had already taken Baton Rouge 
and Natchez. He well deserved the thanks and pro¬ 
motion bestowed upon him by Congress. Porter was 
also made a Rear Admiral. 

118. — Captuee of Roanoke. Gen. Burnside 
rendered an important service to the Union cause in 
the capture of Roanoke, the key to the defenses of 
Norfolk, as it made the blockade of the South more 
than ever effective. This island was well said to un¬ 
lock “ two sounds, eight rivers and four railroads.” The 
forts at Roanoke w^ere captured, the fleet annihilated, 
Newbern, Elizabeth City, and Macon were taken so 
that Beaufort Harbor became ours, and the whole 
coast of North Carolina. 

119. —Poet Royal having been captured in 1861, 
was now a base of operations against Florida and 
Georgia, and during this campaign, Fernandina, Fort 
Clinch, Jacksonville, Darien, St. Augustine, and Fort 
Pulaski were taken in succession. The last named 
capture closed the Port of Scivannah ; and every city 
on the Atlantic coast except Mobile, Charleston and 
Savannah was held by our troops. 

120. — Meeeimac and Monitoe. The iron clad 
Merrimac, really named “ Virginia,” steamed into 
Hampton Roads March 8, at noon, steering directly for 
the Cumberland sloop of war, in whose side she made 
a hole large enongh to admit a man. The sloop sank 
at once with all on board, the men working their guns 
as they went down, with colors flying. The Congress 
frigate was run aground to save her from the same 
fate, but she was compelled to surrender to this irre¬ 
sistible power. There was no longer a place on the 
coast where wooden vessels could be safe against such 
an enemy, and the Merrimac, sure of victory, reserved 
the feast of destruction until next day. The Confed¬ 
erates were full of joyous auguries. No blockade was 
possible while the Merrimac kept afloat. Just then 
the Monitor, built by Ericsson, arrived in Chesapeake 
Bay, with the revolving turret, armed for attack, and 













































































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UNITED STATES. 


209 


a form almost invulnerable. The occasion was criti¬ 
cal. Should she answer the expectation of her friends 
the Confederacy might be broken ; but otherwise, who 
could foresee the result ? Her tonnage was a baga¬ 
telle against that of the Virginia. Nine hundred tons, 
compared with five thousand. Eeady for service in 
Hampton Roads, she waited the arrival of the monster 
from whose sides and roof, the shot of the Cumber¬ 
land had rolled off harmlessly as hail from a cliff. 
The morning brought the destroyer, and the Minne¬ 
sota steam frigate was chosen as the first victim ; but 
from under the lee of that ship came the Monitor, de¬ 
livering shot one hundred and sixty-two pounds in 
weight; masses of iron, whose impact must be de¬ 
struction. The Minnesota was spared until the little 
termagant could be silenced. Shot failed to affect her, 
she must be run down, and five times the experiment 
was tried, but the Monitor came from under the Vir¬ 
ginia’s prow untouched. The world had never wit¬ 
nessed a duel so strange, but the victory was with the 
Union ; as the Virginia gave up the contest, and 
steamed back into Norfolk, leaving the Monitor sub¬ 
stantially unharmed. Ericsson’s ship of iron and 
white oak was worth the ransom of four million slaves. 
Perhaps the Monitor even saved the Republic. 

121 . — Yorktown Besieged. Gen. McClellan, 
landing on the 8th of April at Fortress Monroe with 
100,000 men, commenced the Peninsula Campaign by 
advancing to Yorktown, where Gen. Magruder, with 
5,000 held him at bay for one month; until heavy 
siege guns could be procured from Washington, and 
when all w^as ready fora terrible beginning, Magruder 
gave up his untenable position, where many of the 
guns were found to be wooden substitutes, painted in 
mockery. It w^ould have been an ill wind for Magru¬ 
der that blew him into McClellan’s hands at that time. 

122 . — Battle of Williamsburg. Gen. Joseph 
E. Johnson, posted at Richmond, having sent rein¬ 
forcements to the Confederate rear guard in the forts 

14 





210 CQUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

at Williamsburg, Gen. Hooker was afforded an oppor¬ 
tunity for a battle; as the retreating troops determined 
to make their stand at that point. Nine hours the 
battle raged, but the assaulting party being reinforced, 
Gen. Hooker carried the works by storm, and pursuit 
continued until the fugitives were within seven miles 
of Kichmond. The cit}^ would probably have fallen 
an easy prey at that time. 

123. —Confederate Panic. The Congress sitting 
in Eichmond hastily adjourned, and an attack was 
hourly expected in the capital, where all was hurry 
and confusion; but McClellan had learned that there 
was a force at Hanover Court House which might en¬ 
danger his base of supplies, and the time passed for 
operations. Hanover Court House was captured May 
27, 1862, and the army waited for Gen. McDowell, but 
the junction was rendered impossible by other move¬ 
ments. 

124. — Stonewall Jackson was hurled towards 
Washington, not with the expectation that an oppor¬ 
tunity for an assault upon the National Capital would 
arise, but for the purpose of relieving Eichmond. His 
action in the Shenandoah valley concentrating upon 
himself the attention of a force of 70,000 men, yet 
eluding pursuit and being always on hand to deliver 
telling strokes against our forces, provoked admiration 
among those who deprecated the cause to which his 
abilities were dedicated. The Union troops under 
Gen. Banks, marching 85 miles in one day, crossed the 
Potomac, as a necessary movement under the circum¬ 
stances. The President took military possession of all 
the railroads, and consternation was general in Wash¬ 
ington. The northern states were called upon to send 
militia to defend the city, and three generals — Fre¬ 
mont, Banks and McDowell — were commanded to 
make Jackson their prisoner; but it was as danger¬ 
ous an operation as grasping an electrical eel, and ap¬ 
parently impossible. He dashed through every ob¬ 
stacle in his retreat, burning the bridges by which he 


UNITED STATES. 


211 


passed, and, when Fremont attacked him at Cross 
Keys, June 8, he fought from nine in the morning 
until night, and then continued his retreat in the dark¬ 
ness. At Port Jackson, on the 9th, he engaged and 
defeated Gen. Shields, capturing seven guns, and re¬ 
turned to his starting point, with nearly 8,000 prison¬ 
ers and over 9,000 stand of captured arms. These 
exploits with 15,000 men diverted attention from 
Eichmond, and prevented a junction between McDow¬ 
ell and McClellan. 

125 . — McClellan AT Fair Oaks. The General 

had pushed his left wing across the Chickahorniny, 
just when a storm had changed the creek into a tor¬ 
rent, and the Confederate commander in Eichmond 
came down upon the semi-detached force with terrible 
effect, sweeping all befere him for a time; but Gen. 
Sumner, by a brilliant movement, saved the fortune of 
the day, and, when night fell, the Confederate leader 
Johnston was .severely wounded, so that the command 
fell into less able hands the next day. June 1 saw 
the Confederates driven back into Eichmond with tre¬ 
mendous losses of men and arms, and the pursuers, 
followed them to within five miles of that city, but,, 
once more, Gen. McClellan did not see his way to- 
make one of those bold strokes which are possible only 
to military genius. ; 

126 . — Gen. Lee now took command of the Con-^ 
federate army, but, in consequence of the influence 
exerted by his political chief, the supreme control of 
military operations was not vested in him, and the 
forces were scattered over a wide range of territory, in 
services which did not permit of continuous support. 
He was much loved by his troops; an able defensive 
soldier, but not a good disciplinarian, nor a very suc¬ 
cessful general as a rule, save in defense. His knowl¬ 
edge of the art of war was well nigh perfect, but he 
seemed to lack first-class capacity to mass his troops 
and direct their operations in the field. Perhaps there 
was not another man in the Confederacy who could, 






212 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


w’itli the same means, have made a defense so brilliant 
as that which will perpetuate his fame in connection 
with the name of Kichmond. He would have aban¬ 
doned Eichmond at a much earlier date, but that he 
was overruled by the Confederate government in that, 
as in many other particulars, and the intellectual merit 
of his work is enhanced by the fact that he was labor¬ 
ing much of his time under difficulties all but insu- 
])erable. The appointment of Lee to the Confederate 
command was speedily followed by a severe check to 
our arms under McClellan.^ That officer approached 
Eichmond once more. Hooker’s pickets were in sight 
of its steeples when Gen. Stuart, on the 12th of June, 
made a movement with cavalry round the Union 
forces, burning supplies along the roads most impor¬ 
tant for our purposes, and returned untouched. Stone¬ 
wall Jackson threatened Hanover Court House and 
our White House communications, so Hooker was 
called off from the advance, and a retreat to the James 
Eiver commenced on the 26th of June. 

127. — Confederate Aggressions began by an 
attack on the Union right at Mechanicsville, at dawn 
of day on the 26th, which was repulsed, and our troops 
fell back to Gaines’ Mill, where Porter held the 
bridges across the Chickahominy until darkness 
shrouded our movements, the retreat, hotly contested, 
going on all the time. As soon as our baggage train 
had crossed, the bridges were burned, and the retro¬ 
grade movement continued all night. Similar opera¬ 
tions, the localities only being changed, continued for 
seven days and nights. The retreat was an act of con¬ 
summate generalship on the part of McClellan, but 
Lee had discovered his aim, and troops were thrown 
forward by all roads to intersect his line of march. On 
the 29th, at Savage’s Station, Magruder was on our 
flank, but as before the position was held until night, 
when the retreat was resumed. On the 30th, Long- 
street and Hill tried to cut our lines at Frazier’s Farm, 
but were beaten oh, and that night our forces conceii- 


UNITED STATES. 


213 


trated at Malvern, on a position favorable for defense, 
where the last battle of this series was fought. Bat¬ 
teries, tier above tier on the sloping sides of the plateau, 
told the Confederates on the morning- of July 1st that 
the retreating Army of the Potomac was ready for 
action. Keally the brave fellows were reduced to the 
last pitch of exhaustion by the harrassing work of the 
preceding days and nights, but none would have recog¬ 
nized that fact in the proceedings of the day. Naval 
support on the James River protected the left, but 
nothing daunted, the Confederates hoped to carry the 
position and completely destroy McClellan’s power. 
The repulse sustained by Lee’s army at this point was 
tremendous, and the Union army proceeded to Harri¬ 
son’s Landing without further molestation afterwards; 
but the effect of the Confederate movements under Lee, 
taken as a whole, gave great confidence to the Seces¬ 
sionists. Twenty thousand men lost at Malvern Hill 
was a small price to pay for a succession of victories 
up to that point, which had driven McClellen from 
under the works at Richmond, taken 10,000 prisoners, 
destroyed and secured stores of enormous value, de¬ 
moralized an army of 100,000, or nearly that number, 
and only left them when naval forces came to the res¬ 
cue. McClellan’s loss in killed and wounded was ter¬ 
rific; the north was depressed beyond measure, and 
the President made a fresh levy of 800,000 men. 

128. — Pope's Recokd on the Rapidan, command¬ 
ing the troops intended to defend Washington, was the 
next object of attention. The Confederates, no longer 
fighting for their own capital, now threatened ours, and 
McClellan was subordinated to Gen. Pope, being or¬ 
dered to bring his army to Acquia Creek. Lee deter¬ 
mined to crush Pope before relief could arrive, and 
having detailed Jackson to flank him, compelled that 
General to fight the whole force of the Confederacy 
under his command, on the old battle ground of Ma¬ 
nassas, or Bull Run. The actions of August 29th and 
80th cost the north a terrible discomfiture, in which 





214 


COUNTKIES OF KOETH AMERICA. 


the loss of thirty guns and a vast quantity of military 
stores, very valuable to the south, formed the smallest 
items in the account. The Army of the Potomac, all 
but demolished by this new loss of 80,000 men, and 
the prestige of utter rout, found safety in the fortifica¬ 
tions of Washington. 

129 . — McClellan Resumed Command of the 
army, such as it had become under Pope, and after re¬ 
organizing the force, he followed Gen. Lee into Mary¬ 
land. Having ascertained that Lee had dispatched 
Stonewall Jackson with 25,000 men to capture Har¬ 
per’s Ferry, defended by Col. Mills with only 11,000, 
McClellan overtook the Confederate main body at 
South Mountain and forced the Battle of Antietarn, on 
the 17th day of September. The battle might have 
been fought on the 16th, but McClellan lost twenty- 
four hours, and that allowed Jackson to return with 
part of his command before the engagement came to an 
end. But for that delay Lee would have been crushed, 
or at any rate that was the general impression in the 
north. At dawn on the 17th, Hooker fell upon the 
Confederate left, Burnside waiting a favorable moment 
to carry the bridge and attack the right. Hooker was 
wounded and his attack repulsed, but both sides being 
reinforced, the battle continued until night, the advan¬ 
tage at the close of the engagement being with Lee, 
who retired into Virginia shortly afterwards, and was 
not followed by McClellan until after a delay of six 
weeks. Lee had been compelled to abandon his 
scheme of invasion, Washington was safe, and the bat¬ 
tle of Antietarn had thus the results of a victory. 

130 . — Emancipation of Slaves. President Lin¬ 
coln, whose mind had long pondered the question of 
slavery as an abolitionist, and the policy of emancipa¬ 
tion as a statesman, issued his famous proclamation 
on the 22d of September; but the actual operation of 
its conditional clauses only commenced when the sup¬ 
plementary document followed on January 1, 186^ 
The original draft had been made in July, but the 


UNITED STATES. 


215 


president had waited for some favorable moment to 
publish his intention, when it should not appear to 
have been forced out of him bj reverses. The decla¬ 
ration was opportune, as it gave fresh courage to 
many who had been disheartened by what had seemed 
the want of purpose, in a war arising out of slavery. 
The south was already so bitter, that nothing could 
increase its animosity against the north, consequently 
there was no reason for further delay; still it was 
important with many in the north, to make it evident 
that emancipation was necessary as a war measure. 

131. — McClellan Superseded. Public opinion 
had long been wavering as to McClellan, but the 
campaign of 1862 was fatal to his popularity, and 
he was superseded by Cen. Burnside November 7th, 
who advanced to Fredericksburg on the 17th, crossing 
the Eappahannock on pontoon bridges, and found 
Lee ready to make a masterly defense of his position 
in the bloody conflict of December 13th. The position 
to be assailed on the 13th of December could have 
been taken with ease, when Gen. Sumner asked Burn¬ 
side for orders to capture the place on the night of 
November 17; but the newly appointed commander 
seemed resolved that he would prove his ability to 
move so large an army, of which he had already pub¬ 
licly spoken, and he waited until the force of one 
regiment of cavalry had been changed to the entire 
confederate army under Lee in person. The battle 
was a senes of blunders on our side, in which orders, 
half understood, were executed or attempted with 
useless heroism, and the slaughter under the stone wall 
at Marye’s Hill, defended by Gen. Longstreet, was an 
entirely fruitless massacre of brav^e men before an 
impassable obstacle. Twelve thousand men fell, and 
half of that number, at Marye’s Hill, dying like heroes 
but without result, except that Burnside’s estimate of 
his own powers had been fully sustained, and eight 
days later he was relieved from the command. 

132. —Eesults of the Campaign. The vie- 



216 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


tories of the south had been won almost entirely 
against the army of the Potomac, and it was evident, 
at almost every movement, that our forces were out¬ 
generaled by superior men with whom, they had been 
associated at West Point, until every minutia of their 
minds had been read. The victories of Stonewall 
Jackson and of Lee in the Peninsular campaign, and 
against Pope at Manassas, followed by Cedar Moun¬ 
tain, Chickasaw Bluff and Fredericksburg, almost 
ended the record; as the operations of Bragg in Ken¬ 
tucky had been considerably checkered by reverses. 
The victories of the north had still been such as to 
counteract all these drawbacks, and to prove that 
there were on our side commanders who knew how to 
move masses of men with deadly celerity upon points 
of attack, and to win victories by land and sea. Forts 
Henry, Donelson, Pulaski, Macon, Jackson, St. 
Philip and Island No. 10, taken by the Federal 
arms, proved the bravery of our troops and the 
capacity with which they were directed in the open¬ 
ing of the Mississippi early in the year. The same 
river opened to Vicksburg, the capture of New Or¬ 
leans, Koanoke Island, Newbern, Yorktown, Norfolk 
and Memphis, the battles of Pea Kidge, Williamsburg, 
Fair Oaks, South Mountain, Antietam, luka, Cor¬ 
inth and Murfreesboro, the destruction of the flotilla 
before New Orleans, and the defeat of the Merrimac 
by the Monitor, made a good showing for the work of 
the year; but most men saw that the command of our 
resources in the west and along the coast had been 
much more conducive to glory and success than that 
which, under several heads, had sacrificed the north in 
Virginia. 

133. — Indian Difficulties came in to increase 
our complications during 18H2. The Sioux, unable 
to procure their payments from Indian traders, com¬ 
mitted horrible massacres in Dacotah, Iowa and 
Minnesota, driving thousands from their home, and 
murdering about seven hundred whites. Col. Sibley 


UI^ITED STATES. 


217 


pursued the savages for one month, look five hundred 
captives and thirty-nine were hanged at Mankato after 
Christmas, 1862, thereby ending the outbreak. 

134. — The Campaign of 1863 opened with the 
emancipation of slaves; they were no longer merely 
“ contrabands of warthey were free within the 
boundaries of the Union ; and there were 700,000 men 
in arms to carry out that line of policy. Already the 
Confederates were being destroyed by the mere contin¬ 
uance of the war, as their numbers in the field were 
hardly 350,000. The occupation of Tennessee was 
now added to the former plans of action. 

135. — Capture of Vicksburg. Grant, in com¬ 
mand of all the troops in the Mississippi Valley, in 
January, 1863, took a position in front of Vicksburg, 
and determined to carry the place. Some months 
were spent in unceasing devices on the North, before 
the General concluded to pass the river below Vicks¬ 
burg in April. The gunboats ran the batteries and 
the troops were crossed on the last da}^ of the month. 
Pemberton, not yet shut up in Vicksburg, was in the 
field with 62,000 men, and was on the point of being 
reinforced by Johnston, who had preceded Lee in the 
command at Kichmond. Grant’s command was only 
43,000, therefore it was important that the enemy 
should be taken in detail. Pushing himself between 
the two armies he, on the 1st of May, defeated part of 
Pemberton’s command at Port Gibson ; on the 12th 
he destroyed a force coming from Jackson, and on the 
14th scattered Johnston’s army, capturing Jackson at 
the same time. Two days later he routed Pember¬ 
ton’s entire force at Champion’s Hill, and on the 17th, 
having overtaken him in pursuit, he inflicted upon 
him another defeat at Black River Bridge, driving him 
into Vicksburg the following day. Assaults failing 
to carry the city on the 19th and 22d, siege works be¬ 
gan on the 23d, and on the 4th of July, the day we 
celebrate was signalized by the surrender of Vicks¬ 
burg, with 31,000 men and 172 cannon, besides other 





218 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

stores. The Confederate loss in that campaign was 
40,000 prisoners and about 20,000 killed, wounded, 
missing, and deaths by disease. Thus the great river 
was opened to the sea, and the Mississippi Yalley saw 
no more heavy fighting. Our loss altogether was un¬ 
der 9,000 men, in winning five battles and capturing 
two cities, besides which the fall of Port Hudson, 
which had resisted Gen. Banks for many weeks, fol¬ 
lowed immediately on the surrender of Yicksburg, 
and the Confederacy was completely severed. 

136. — Chickamauga. The energy displayed by 
Grant was not emulated by Kosecrans in Tennessee, 
and it was not long before the voice of the people 
called the Pacificator of the Mississippi Yalley to 
higher commands. He was forthwith made a Major 
General in the regular army. Eosecrans made no 
movement, after Murfreesboro, until June, when he 
marched against Bragg, with 60,000 men, and com¬ 
pelled that General to abandon Chattanooga, Septem¬ 
ber 8th, to preserve his communications. Assuming 
Bragg to be in full retreat, Eosecrans followed precip¬ 
itately and was nearly destroyed by the sudden move¬ 
ments of Bragg, near Chickamauga, when the pursu¬ 
ing force was scattered along a line of about forty 
miles. The battle lasted two days, September 19th 
and 20th. The first day saw no advantage gained by 
either side, but about noon on the 20th, Longstreet 
broke the Federal line and swept away the centre and 
right, Eosecrans being among the fugitives. Gen. 
Thomas, with the left, held the field against the entire 
Confederate army until night, when he retired to Chat¬ 
tanooga, taking some prisoners as he went. The army 
of the Union was shut up and Bragg cut off all com¬ 
munications threatening the garrison with famine. 
Thomas was afterwards known as “ The Eock of 
Chickamauga.” 

137. — Chattanooga was closely beleaguered when 
Grant’s command was extended to cover that region, 
October 16th. One week from that date he was on 


UNITED STATES. 


219 


the spot, and on the 27th, the battle of Lookout Yal- 
ley relieved the Army of the Cumberland. There 
was no Rosecrans now to dally with danger. Hooker 
came from the Potomac by rail, with two^corps, 25,000 
men, and Sherman dashed into the scene of glory by 
forced marches from luka. November 23d, 24th and 
25th saw Bragg defeated in the battle of Chattanooga, 
driven from positions supposed to be impregnable, 
losing 5,000 prisoners in the open field, and forty 
pieces of artillery. The Confederates reported 2,500 
men, killed and wounded. Orchard Knob was seized 
by Gen. Thomas on the 23d, and on the 24th Lookout 
Mountain was carried in a grand charge by Hooker, 
who the next morning advanced on the south of Mis¬ 
sionary Ridge. Sherman disturbed the equanimity of 
Bragg by his operations on the northern flank, and the 
center was weakened to resist him. Grant, at Orchard 
Knob, saw his opportunity and sent Thomas to carry 
the rifle pits at the foot of the ridge; but his men, for¬ 
getting all limitations, bettered the instruction by 
sweeping up the ridge with headlong impetuosity. A 
charge along the whole line was the crowning movement 
of the day. Bragg’s army was annihilated, his own 
guns were turned upon him, there was no longer a 
hostile army west of the Alleghanies, and Georgia was 
open to our arms, with Virginia, the CaroUnas, and 
the complete control of East Tennessee. Bragg re¬ 
signed his command immediately afterwards, and 
Grant became the idol of the North. 

138. — Knoxville, Tenn., was now the abiding 
place of Gen. Burnside, who, after his misfortunes in 
command of the Army of the Potomac, had achieved 
manv successes in this region, but had been shut up 
in Knoxville, Sept. 17, by Longstreet, with a superior 
force. Immediately after Chattanooga the commander 
sent Sherman to relieve Burnside, by forced marches 
with barefoot troops, over terrible roads, a distance of 
one hundred miles. Longstreet made his grand as¬ 
sault Nov. 29, hoping to subdue Burnside before aid 



220 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

could reach him, hut that General knew how to fight 
to the last man, and the attack was heroically defeated. 
The relief under Sherman came on the 4th of Decem¬ 
ber, and Longstreet retreated in good order. 

139. — General Hooker succeeded Burnside in 
command, after Fredericksburg, in January, and upon 
the departure of Longstreet, who was sent into Ten¬ 
nessee to help Bragg, Hooker determined upon an 
advance with about iOO.OOO men, to attack Lee, who 
had now only about 60,000 within reach. Sedgwick 
was left before Fredericksburg, and Hooker pushed 
forward to Chancellorsville, taking up a very strong 
position, from which Lee was unable to dislodge him. 
The fight continued two days. May 2d and 3d, but on 
the second day Hooker, having been stunned by a 
cannon ball, which struck a post against which he was 
leaning, could not direct the operations of his side. 
A terrible attack in the rear of the force by Stonewall 
Jackson, while Lee made an assault in front, partially 
demoralized the army; but the great body of the for¬ 
ces held their ground. The redoubtable Stonewall 
Jackson fell in this battle, being shot by mistake by 
one of his own men, as is believed; and the loss of 
such an officer was worse than the destruction of a 
regiment, for the Confederate cause. Sedgwick crossed 
the Rappahannock, carried Fredericksburg by assault, 
and attacked the rear of Lee’s.army, but that officer 
concentrating his force upon Sedgwick, drove him 
back across the river, and Hooker, having lost 18,000 
men, recrossed the Rappahannock. The Confederates 
lost about 18,000. Sedgwick’s movements were well 
executed, but the accident to Hooker prevented the 
designs originally formed from being carried into exe¬ 
cution. 

140. — Philadelphia and New York were now 
the objective points with Gen. Lee, and he was confi¬ 
dent that he could dictate terms of peace in the heart 
of the northern states. The successes at Vicksburg 
and in that neighborhood were yet in the future, and 


UNITED STATES. 


221 


the south made a desperate effort to equip an army 
superior to anything ever yet attempted by the Seces¬ 
sionists. Hooker, who was in command of the Fed¬ 
eral army, when Lee moved down the valley of the 
Shenandoah and crossed the Potomac, advancing to 
Chambersburg, continued on the same line along 
Blue Ridge and South Mountains. Fearing some 
movement that would endanger his communications, 
Lee turned east to threaten Baltimore. Hooker con¬ 
tinued in command until the army arrived in Freder¬ 
ick City, when in consequence of his demands as to 
the disposition of troops not being complied with, he 
resigned, and the command devolved upon Hen. 
Meade. Congress afterwards gave a vote of thanks to 
Gen. Hooker for his services in averting the blow 
which might have been inflicted upon the capital by 
the Confederate forces under Lee. 

141. — Gettysbukg. Gen. Meade only assumed 
the command of the Army of the Potomac June 28th, 
and the great battle commenced on the 1st of July, 
being continued for two days afterwards. The plans 
made for the campaign by Hooker were eminently ju¬ 
dicious, and in part, his movements were answerable 
for the results at Gettysburg. There was no intention 
on either side to fight at that point, but an accidental 
encounter between cavalry corps on the 30th of June, 
led to another assault of a similar character at Wil¬ 
loughby’s Run near Gettysburg, July 1st, when Gen. 
Buford with 4,000 horse, held the ground against 30,- 
000 men of all arms; and so by the will of God the 
I great battle was fought on the place allotted. Other 
forces rallied to the support of both sides, and the first 
day ended with some slight disadvantage to the Union 
forces ; but they had taken up an impregnable posi¬ 
tion, and Seminary Ridge had given the troops confi¬ 
dence in themselves and in each other. There were 
about 75,000 men on the side of the union, and on the 
other side about 80,000. Lee’s force was 100,000 when 
he started, but many had scattered beyond reach wdien 




222 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

the battle commenced. The second day was a terrific 
struggle on both sides, but Lee had gained no advan¬ 
tage when the sun went down, nor afterwards when 
the battle was continued by moonlight, until both ar¬ 
mies sought rest. The position taken by Sickles on 
the second day has been blamed by some military au¬ 
thorities, but the greatest authority we know, Gen. 
Grant, after surveying the battle field with a full 
knowledge of all the circumstances, pronounced 
Sickles to have been “ right.” The dawn of day on 
the third saw the battle recommenced at Culp’s Hill, 
but the confederates were repulsed after a struggle 
which continued from about 6 in the morning until 11. 
There was a lull until about 1 P. M., when 150 great 
guns opened fire upon the federal position, and for 
two hours the atmosphere seemed freighted with death; 
then came the charge up Cemetery Kidge, one of the 
finest charges of the war; but heroism was met by 
heroism, and position told sufficiently to more than 
compensate for our disparity of numbers. The attack 
was a grand failure, and the battle of Gettysburg was 
won for the North. The losses on the part of the 
South were over 31,000, and Meade was generally 
blamed because he did not follow up his advantage. 
President Lincoln is reported to have said that “Prov¬ 
idence had twice delivered the army of Northern Yir- 
ginia into our hands, and with such opportunities neg¬ 
lected, we ought scarcely to hope for a third chance.” 
Meade allowed Lee even to carry off the prisoners 
taken in the first two days, and slowly followed him 
to the Rapidan. Grant, in the same place, would have 
ended the war at Gettysburg. The campaign so end¬ 
ed closed out all fears of a northern invasion, and Lee 
slowly retired toward Richmond to wait the time for a 
surrender of his hopeless struggle. The veterans lost 
in the great battle, added to "the death of Stonewall 
Jackson at Chancellorsville, had taken the heart al¬ 
most entirely out of the once indomitable force. 

142. —Admiral Du Pont, on the 7th of April, 


UNITED STATES. 


223 


1863, tried to force his way to Charleston with eight 
ironclads, but after engaging Fort Sumter for nearly 
two hours, and having failed to silence the batteries, 
he drew off to reconsider the attack, and eventually 
concluded that Charleston could not be taken without 
a combined assault by land and sea. Fort Wagner 
was afterwards taken by regular approaches, and Fort 
Sumter reduced to ruins, but even then it was found 
impossible with the force at hand to effect a capture. 
Thus the year came to an end with results generally 
more favorable for the union arms, than any previous 
year since the rebellion commenced. The confeder¬ 
ates claimed Chickarnauga, but the victory was tem¬ 
pered by the heroism of Thomas. Chancellorsville 
was not a crushing defeat for our arms, and Galveston 
was the only considerable gain made by that side, ex¬ 
cept that Charleston had been held against our as¬ 
saults. The record on our side had many brilliant 
features. The doubtful victory won by Bragg at 
Chickarnauga had been followed by the destruction of 
his army at Chattanooga in the charge up Missionary 
Ridge. The battles before Vicksburg and the capture 
of that fortress city with the demolition of two armies, 
more than equalled in results the three days at Gettys¬ 
burg. Port Hudson and Jackson were but small 
items in a return of such magnitude. The Mississippi 
had become ours. The confederates were cut off from 
supplies, Arkansas, East Tennessee, Mississippi, and 
much of Louisiana, with Texas to the Rio Grande, had 
submitted to union arms. There was substantial 
cause for rejoicing in the north, but the price was felt 
to be enormous. How much more terrible was the 
cost paid by the south for its terrific failure ? 

143.— -Lieut. Gen. Grant had won the suffrage 
of all thinking men by his promptitude and capacity 
for command, before the command in chief of all the 
forces of the north was conferred upon him. Men 
spoke of his good fortune, which consisted in his leav¬ 
ing nothing to chance where his powers could be made 



224 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


to cover an emergency. With ample authority and 
sufficient force, he was now to take supreme military 
control, and the armies of the north would move in 
concert. Grrant assumed the task of subduing Lee in 
Yirginia, devolving upon Sherman the duty to defeat 
Johnston in Georgia. 

144. — AdvancixVG on Atlanta. Gen. Joseph 
Elleston Johnston was stationed at Dalton, Ga., when 
Gen. Sherman moved upon his works, and he had pre-- 
dared for the attack which must-come by a series of 
almost impregnable lines, which must retard, and which 
might prevent, the capture of Atlanta. The advance, 
with 100,000 men, waas made early in May, and Sher¬ 
man was confronted by Johnston with onl}^ 54,000, 
who prudently avoided an engagement in the open 
country. At Lesaca, Johnston defended his position 
with obstinate valor, repulsing Sherman with considera¬ 
ble loss, but Johnston, finding himself outflanked, re¬ 
tired successively to iVdairsville and Cassville, hotly con¬ 
testing every step. The Allatoona Pass was the scene 
of a very determined resistance, and many davs elapsed 
before that position could be carried. Retreating then 
to Kenesaw ^Mountain, where his field works showed 
profound military science, and the flanks of his position 
were strengthened by Pine and Lost Mountains, Sher¬ 
man was once more held at bay by his brave and 
able antagonist, losing 3,000 men in one assault, while 
the Confederate loss was 442. Outflanked at last, the 
Confederate General fell back on Atlanta on the 10th 
of July, having fought over one hundred miles of 
country more than two months against a force nearly 
twiee as strong as his own, and as the reward for his 
arduous labors he was superseded at that point by Jef¬ 
ferson Davis, who could not appreciate the policy that 
was being pursued. Gen. Hood took command of the 
defense, and soon discovered that there was nothing 
before him but escape or surrender. After hard fight¬ 
ing and great losses on both sides. Hood evacuated the 
city of Atlanta and made a dash into Tennessee. At- 




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UNITED STATES. 


225 


lanta had long been a storehouse for the south, and it 
was now in our hands, having cost 30,000 on our side 
to 40,000 on the other. Before Sherman started from 
this position for his famous “March to the Sea,” the 
inhabitants were, as a precautionary measure, driven 
from the city and the place reduced to ashes. The 
supplies of clothing, cannon, powder, wagons, harness, 
and cannon balls which had been drawn from Georgia 
were now no longer available for the southern armies. 
Ten battles had been won and lost, but the result at¬ 
tained was worth the fighting. 

145. — Thomas at Nashville. Hood, with an 
army of 45,000 men, abandoning Atlanta, sent a de- 
j tachrnent to capture Allatoona, but sustained a repulse 
in that quarter, with terrible slaughter, at our hands, 
lie surrounded Kesaca, but did not dare an attack, as 
Sherman was close upon him, and from that point he 
commenced his march upon Tennessee. Sherman sent 
reinforcements to Gen. Thomas, at Nashville, and was 
ready to reorganize his force. Hood destroyed,every¬ 
thing as he advanced, and recruited his ranks, until 
when he reached Pulaski his force had grown to 
55,000, against which Thomas could only oppose 
30,000, under the command of Schofield. The Union 
men retreated to Franklin, in a bend of the Harpeth, 
where, with 20,000 men, Schofield defended himself 
desperately against nearly 60,000, inflicting a loss of 
5,000, and never losing a gun. Continuing his retreat 
in the night of November 80th, Schofield joined 
Thomas at Nashville, and the place was almost imme¬ 
diately beseiged by Hood. There was an ominous in¬ 
action for about two weeks, but the “ Kock of Chick- 
! amauga ” was only biding his time. He permitted 
Hood to believe that there was a glorious career' of 
victory before the Confederate arms in Tennessee, and 
then, when every preparation had been completed, 
sallied upon his beseigers, whom he defeated and drove 
in every direction, during two days of terrible fighting, 
December 15th and 16th. Thomas secured 72 guns, 
15 



226 COUNTEIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

12,000 prisoners, one of them a Major General, and 
more than 2,200 men took the amnesty oath as desert¬ 
ers. The over confident Hood escaped over the Ten¬ 
nessee at Bainbridge with barely the fragment of an 
army. His force was not merely demoralized, it was 
destroyed. East Tennessee was cleared of armed Con¬ 
federates, and it was evident, for the first time, that the 
war, in every department, had fallen into right hands. 
The war at the west was ended, save as to a few petty 
operations, and Sherman was already off upon his cel¬ 
ebrated march. 

146. — Sherman’s March. Confident that Thom¬ 
as could do all that was required in Tennessee, Sher¬ 
man started from Atlanta on the 16th of November, 
with 65,500 men. Skirmishers and Kilpatrick’s cav¬ 
alry disguised the direction of the army as it moved 
onward in four columns, and none knew its direction 
until a place had been struck. Railroads and works 
likely to succor the Confederates were destroyed. 
Telegraph wires were cut so that no intelligence of 
his movements could be transmitted by such means, 
and in five weeks from the outset, with some fighting 
at river crossings, the army had reached the sea at 
Savannah. Fort McAllister on the Ogechee, was car¬ 
ried by assault on the 18th of December, and seven 
days later Savannah was abandoned. The Confede¬ 
racy was once more sundered. Sherman’s subordi¬ 
nate officers had carried out his orders by distressing 
the Secessionists, and 167 guns, with over 1,800 pris¬ 
oners and immense stores of provisions had been cap¬ 
tured. The moral effect of that march, however, 
entirely transcended its physical results. The cannon 
and 25,000 bales of cotton were transmitted from 
Savannah to President Lincoln, as a Christmas present 
for Lfie nation; and within a few days the march 
through Georgia was the only event of which any per¬ 
son spoke or sang. 

147. — The Wilderness. When the army under 
Grant had come into the Chancellorsville country, 


UNITED STATES. 


227 


after crossing the Eapidan, the Confederate army 
under Lee attacked them, toiling along the narrow 
roads in the Wilderness. The butcheiy was terrible, 
but the men on both sides stood their ground with 
I wondrous resolution. Two days the battle raged, and 
I on the third bi.Uh armies rested in their entrenchments. 

Grant’s army was reduced by 20,000, Lee admitted a 
! loss of 10,000, and there was some hope that the Union 
men would retire behind the Eapidan once more. 
Grant made other arrangements. The 5th and two 
following daj’s had been spent in the Wilderness, and 
1 on the 8th of ^tay he outflanked Lee, making for 
Spottsylvania Court House. The Confederate com¬ 
mander was playing his best card, defense, and every 
movement was calculated upon. When Grant arrived 
at his destination a Confederate army was before him, 
and for five days more there was hard pounding be¬ 
tween men as nearly as possible compeers of each 
, other in courage and skill. On the 12th of May, 

I Grant determined that he would once more turn the 
right flank of his antagonist, but Lee divining the in- 
j tention, was before him at the North Anna, and the 
j battle of Cold Harbor resulted on the 3d of June. It 
was during this terrible series of battles that Grant wrote- 
his well known dispatch : “ I propose to fight it out or> 
this line if it takes all summer.” The Commander- 
in Chief came into this region with 111,000 men, and 
he was opposed by Lee on the defensive, with 75,000. 
Before reaching the James Eiver he had lost 6,000> 
killed, 26,000 wounded and 7,000 missing. The Con- 
federates carefully destroyed their own records of 
losses, consequently there is only a guess at results, 
but they ca[)tured only 6,000 prisoners, while Grant 
captured 10,000, and it is probable that in every par¬ 
ticular their losses were nearly’ as great, perhaps 
greater than our own. Grant never fought harder 
battles than those in the Wilderness, at Spottsylvania, 
North Anna and Cold Harbor, but after every en¬ 
gagement Grant advanced and Lee lost ground. The 





228 


COUNTRIES Of NORTH AMERICA. 


purpose in view was the annihilation of tlie army 
■under Lee, as it was very evident tliat the Confede¬ 
racy could never replace such soldiers in the field; 
and the loss of a few thousand human lives must not 
stand in the way of that result. The course of the 
army from the Eapidan to the James before the Con¬ 
federate capital had been well considered, and the cost 
was on the whole more distressing to the south than 
to the north. The attack on Petersburg proved the 
prescience of Lee, as the works were so defended that 
nothing less than a regular seige could compel sub¬ 
mission, and Grant commenced his intrenchments 
without delay. The works were begun in June. 

148. — Before Etchmond. There were but few 
events of national importance in the early days of the 
siege upon this spot, but the whole military scheme of 
the Union converged here. The siege kept Lee so 
completely occupied that he could do nothing to assist 
the other victors, while Grant was calmly directing 
every considerable movement. The conquest of At¬ 
lanta and the march to the sea, all contributed to the 
success which had to be secured at Eichmond. Thomas, 
reinforced, not only made Sherman’s march a possibil¬ 
ity, but destroyed an army also; and Sheridan, here, 
there, and everywhere, carried defeat into the enemy’s 
ranks wherever he struck. The forces were not greatly 
dissimilar, allowing for the requirements of attack and 
defense. Grant, joined by Butler’s force, had 110,000 
men, and Lee had joined to his regular force of 75,000 
men, 5,000 more, including the local militia and gun¬ 
boat crews. There was an explosion of a mine under 
a fort at Petersburg on the 30th of July, and the work 
became a ruin ; but the result was not of such a char¬ 
acter as to enable our forces to carry Petersburg. The 
Weldon Eailroad w^as coptured by good strategy and 
hard fighting, on the 18th of August, and although 
Lee, knowing the importance of the communication, 
put forth all his powers to recapture that position, our 
lines permanently closed in upon him to that extent. 


UNITED STATES. 


229 


The scheme which liad so many tmics called off the 
Union forces from tlic Capital of the Confederacy was 
to be tried once more, and Washington w'as threatened ; 
but Grant continued to devote his personal energy 
upon Lee, and made ample provision for the defense 
of the northern territory through other hands. 

— Cedar Cheek. Gen. Hunter had allowed 
himself to be deflected from the line of march 
planned for him, and there was in consequence an op¬ 
portunity for Gen. Lee to dispatch Early along the 
Shenandoah Valley toward Washington, and on the 
10th of July he threatened Fort Stevens, one of the 
defenses of the Capital, with 20,000 men. One day 
lost there, rendered action an impossibility, and, with 
some plunder, having burned a village, he was back 
in the Shenandoah. Sheridan, dispatched by Grant 
for the purpose, came down upon Early like a cyclone, 
striking him at Winchester, and again at Fisher’s Hill, 
driving him apparently into thin air. The Confederate 
General, having been reinforced, struck Sheridan’s 
camp at daylight on the 19th of October, at Cedar 
Creek, during the absence of Sheridan, and the left 
flank was turned and driven in confusion for some dis¬ 
tance. Sheridan heard the cannonade and returned at 
full speed to find the aspect of affairs. His men felt 
his presence as an inspiration, and when he said to 
them, “ Boys we are going back,’’ there was no diffi¬ 
culty in routing the Confederates, recapturing his own 
guns and thirty pieces of artillery beside, releasing his 
own men and taking 2,000 prisoners before sundown. 
Early and his force were completely broken by this 
brilliant campaign of only one month, and Washington 
was threatened no more. 

150. — Red River. The joint expedition on Red 
River, which was to have captured Shreveport, proved 
a failure because of the incompetency of Gen. Banks, 
who was routed by the Confederates at Sabine Cross 
Roads. Gen. Banks was at once relieved of his com¬ 
mand. 




230 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

151. — Mobile was the object of an expedition 
■under the command of Admiral Farragut, and his 
ships fought their wa-^ past the Confederate forts to 
engage the Iron Clad fleet, all of which were captured 
or put to flight. The Iron Ram, Tennessee, was one 
of the prizes. 

152. — Fort Fisher, the defense of Wilmington 
Harbor, K C., was attacked by Commodore Pjarter, 
and a land force under Gen. Butler, Dec. 24—25, but 
after bombarding the fort, Butler was convinced it 
could not be taken, so he returned to Fortress Monroe. 
The fleet remained ofl the harbor, as Porter was^ cer¬ 
tain that the fort could be reduced, and upon his re¬ 
quest the troops originally sent were returned to him 
with 1,600 more, and the works were carried by a 
hand to hand fight on the 15th of January, 1865; the 
assailants being two columns, one of soldiers and the 
other of sailors. The defenders behaved heroically. 

153. —Results of the Campaign. The unifica¬ 
tion of our war under the Lieutenant- General showed 
excellent results. The blockade had become so effec¬ 
tual that the Confederacy was at its last gasp. Fort 
Fisher just taken closed the last Confederate port. 
Confederate cruisers, so called, had damaged our com¬ 
merce, but the south was without commerce of any 
kind. The Alabama, suffered by British officialism 
to escape from an English port, had done immense 
injury, for which Great Britain ultimately paid ; and 
before the war ended, Capt. Winslow of the Kearsarge, 
destroyed that vessel off Cherbourg harbor. Com¬ 
mander Sernmes escaping in an English yacht after he 
had surrendered. The wants of the men under arms, 
and more especially of the wounded and suffering, 
called forth an amount of philanthropy in all classes, 
such as was never excelled in the annals of civili¬ 
zation. Over $17,000,000 was expended by the Sani¬ 
tary and Christian commissions in such works of 
mercy; their modes of operation being numberless. 
Despite the load of debt incurred by the adminstra- 



UNITED STATES. 


231 


tion in conducting the war, Abraham Lincoln, renomi¬ 
nated by the Eepublican party, with George B. Mc¬ 
Clellan for his opponent, put forward by the Dem¬ 
ocrats, carried the Union by a majority of over 400,- 
000, and McClellan had only three states. The gains 
of the Confederacy in field or fort, this year, had been 
small indeed. Olustee and the Sabine Cross Eoads, 
Bermuda Hundred and Monocacy were all their vic¬ 
tories, except that they held Grant at arms length at 
Eichmond, and had defeated expeditions at Eed Eiver 
and into Florida. On every side they were giving way. 
North and South Carolina were their only states east 
of the Mississippi. Mississippi, Alabama, Virginia, 
Tennessee, Georgia and Florida had been overrun by 
our troops. The Wilderness, Spottsylvania and Cold 
Harbor had been followed by the results of victory 
for the North, and there had been undoubted victories 
for our arms at Eesaca, Dallas, Kenesaw and Atlanta; 
at Pleasant Hill, Winchester, Fisher’s Hill, Cedar 
Creek and at Nashville. The forts in Mobile Harbor, 
Fort McAllister, Fort DeEussy, the march through 
Georgia, the capture of Atlanta and Savannah ; the 
devastation of the Shenandoah Valley, and the demo¬ 
lition of its army of defense, the annihilation of 
Hood’s army by Thomas, the coast blockaded by 
our navy, the destruction of the flotilla at Mobile 
and the firm grasp by Grant of every avenue to vic¬ 
tory as well as of Lee and the last shred of Con¬ 
federate force at Eichmond, left it now only a ques¬ 
tion of a few months at farthest, when the rebellion 
should be reckoned among the things of the past. 

154 . — The Last Campaign. The beginning of 
the end had come, and already the Union forces were 
concentrating upon Eichmond with the desire of the 
huntsman to be in at the death. Sherman, after a 
brief rest at Savannah, had only to end the military 
career of Johnston and he could then join Grant. 
Sheridan was already in the lines of circumvallation. 
Wilson and Stoneman were within hail ready for 





232 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


whatever duty the commander-in-chief might find 
necessary, and the courage of the nation stood never 
at a higher pitch of enthusiasm. 

155.— Sherman’s March through the Carolinas 
from Savannah, commenced February 1, 1865, after a 
brief rest, was a movement as rapid as the conditions 
of the time and hot haste could render possible. 
Eivers that had no bridges, without a long distance, 
were waded, and one battle was fought by his army 
shoulder deep in a stream. Grant’s orders were, that 
he should come north without delay, and Sherman 
obeyed to the letter and spirit. Fifty miles was his 
front, and the army, 60,000 strong, marched in four 
columns leaving the broad print of their footsteps in 
desolation. Hardee evacuated Charleston and retreated 
north towards Lee with 12,000 men. Columbia, the 
state capital, was burned by accident. Kilpatrick, 
routed by a sudden rush of Wade Hampton’s forces, 
recovered the surprise, gathered up his men, and 
retrieved his fortune. Fayetteville, North Carolina, 
saw the first decided stand against our armies. John¬ 
ston had collected 40,000 men under Beauregard, 
Hardee, Cheatham and Bragg, with cavalry forces 
under Wheeler and Hampton. A halt was called on 
the 11th of March, to mass the forces of the Union, 
and on the 15th the word was once more, ‘‘ Forward.” 
Hardee, on the left wing, attacked him in a narrow 
pass, but the force was beaten off. The right was 
attacked near Bentonville by Johnston with his main 
body, but there was another defeat for the Confederates 
on the 18th. Halting his forces at Goldsboro on the 
19th of March, Sherman hastened forward to City 
Point to consult with his commander. A junction of 
forces between Lee and Johnston was now the forlorn 
hope of the Confederates, and the chance was micro¬ 
scopic, with Grant on the alert as usual and so many 
forces converging toward- the Union lines. Still Lee 
would not abandon his hope as long as a possibility 
remained. 


UNITED STATES. 


233 


15G. — Before Eigiimond Again. An attack on 
the right was the device that was to divert Grant’s at¬ 
tention from the more important movements contem¬ 
plated bj the Confederate General, and Fort Stedman 
was surprised and captured at daybreak, March 25th, 
with a loss of two thousand five hundred troops on 
either side, including the assault by which the position 
was recovered, and Lee lost 2,000 prisoners out of his 
force of only 5,000. Hardly 500 returned to report 
the substantial failure, and Grant not called off from 
his main purpose, closed in with fatal tenacity upon 
the works. He saw that the time for the evacuation 
or surrender of Eichmond was at hand, and his watch¬ 
fulness was communicated to every man in the ranks. 

157. — Five Forks. The movement of Sheridan 
toward Five Forks was part of a much larger opera¬ 
tion commenced by Grant on the last day of March, to 
turn Lee’s right. The Confederate General fought with 
his whole force to avoid the calamity ; but on the first 
of April, the brilliant affair at Five Forks completed 
the operation, taking nearly 5,000 prisoners, and ren¬ 
dering Lee’s position, in a military sense, untenable. 
Our loss was oqly about 1,000, and the end was now 
within easy reach. 

158. — Petersburg and Eichmond were evacu¬ 
ated on the following days in consequence of an ad¬ 
vance of the whole line upon the works. President 
Davis was informed soon after 10 in the morning of the 
2d, that the city could be held no longer, and before 
the next morning at 4, Eichmond, damaged as much 
by fires and explosions as their means would permit, 
had been abandoned by the army under Lee, whose 
hope now was that he might escape from the -toils of 
his able adversary. Davis escaped to Danville hoping 
to hear tidings of success in the field from Lee, but the 
case was hopeless. He then fled toward Johnston, and 
remained a, while at Greensboro, IST. C., but seeing no 
hope there, started for Georgia with a cavalry force of 
2,000, which soon dwindled to very meager proper- 





234 COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

lions. Then putting aside the dignity of office, he 
tried to escape with his family, and was captured on 
the 10th of May, to be confined in Fortress Monroe for 
two years, and then liberated on the bail of Horace 
Greeley, a monument of northern mercy. Turning 
now to Lee, a lion at bay, we find him at Amelia 
Court House with 85,000 men, trying in vain to pro¬ 
vision his army, and with Grant close upon his tracks, 
outnumbered, outgeneralled, borne down at eveiy 
point, his ranks thinned by the hourly desertions of 
starving men, whole corps surrounded and captured, 
the heroic defender of the cause of the confederacy, 
proposed to meet Grant and discuss the terms of peace. 
Hemmed in on all sides, he was at the mercy of his 
foes, but he was still a brave man, and that secured 
him consideration. Grant could offer no terms but to 
receive his surrender, and on the 9th of April he ac¬ 
cepted that hard condition in the open field at Appo¬ 
mattox Court House, with all that remained of his 
once powerful army, now reduced to 27,000 men. An 
army of 70,000 men had been annihilated in ten days, 
and there was no longer a plank on which the Confed¬ 
eracy could float. His treatment of Lee had in it so 
much of magnanimity, that the outlying generals 
speedily came in to share the terms upon which the 
war ended. There were some operations after this date 
and before the news could be flashed along the coast; 
but the Rebellion had now been extinguished in the 
blood of nearly a million of men. 

159. — Consummation of the Tragedy. Grant 
returned to Washington to disband the army which 
had won such laurels; and there on the 14th of April, 
Abraham Lincoln was assassinated, in the midst of our 
universal rejoicings. Grant had been invited to share 
the President’s box that night in Ford’s Theatre, but 
his engagements prevented acceptance, or perhaps he 
also would have fallen a victim to the savage bate of 
men who could not appreciate the mercy shown to 
their misguided champions. The news went over the 


UNITED STATES. 


235 


land and around the world with the effect of a funeral 
pall in the presence of a bridal party, and such tears 
were shed, even in distant lands, over the heroic life 
thus ended, as told of an influence over the souls of 
civilized man everywhere, unexampled in the history 
of rulers. 

1 GO. — Compared with Lincoln’s Death, men 
all over the Union held the heavy cost of the war as 
nothing. Three hundred thousand of our brave fel¬ 
low citizens had died facing the foe in battle array, or 
in diseases superinduced by war; two hundred thou¬ 
sand maimed and crippled remained to tell of the 
struggles through which the Union had passed, and 
the armies in grey had probably suffered more severe¬ 
ly; our debt had increased to $2,750,000,000; but all 
these items were as nothing for a time in the presence 
of that soul of mercy and patriotism, slaughtered by 
an insane zealot with the cry Sic semper iyratmis. The 
words seemed accursed, and the cowardly rage which 
at such an hour could fruitlessly slaughter the best 
man of his time and country, procured as it merited 
the reprobation of the human race. The end of the 
Lincoln epoch had arrived. Andrew Johnson had be¬ 
come President; but upon the hero of the war, after 
Lincoln our greatest man, all eyes were turned. The 
nation was growing and demanded able.administration, 
for even while the war progressed, new States had 
sought admission to the Union. AYest Yirginia and 
Nevada had brought up our nurnbei's to thirty-six in 
June, 1863, and in October, 1864; besides which the 
problem of reabsorbing the seceded states presented a 
task for every leading mind to ponder. 

Johnson and the Itepnhlic. ISGo-lSO!). 

161. —T he New President had no claims upon 
the Kepublic, except that he, being a life-long demo¬ 
crat, had remained faithful to the Union, and it was 
not long before his imperious disposition had antago¬ 
nized most of the Republican leaders. Two men more 
completely unlike than Johnson and his great prede- 





236 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


cessor could hardly be found. The new President as¬ 
sumed the duties of his office within a few hours of the 
death of Abraham Lincoln, and the work of the admin¬ 
istration suffered changes but no pause. Grant was 
already disbanding the army, having dismissed the 
Confederate soldiery upon their parol. The terms ex¬ 
tended to Lee and the brave men who had fought un¬ 
der him would have been annulled by Johnson, but 
Grant came to the rescue, and the indictment for trea¬ 
son which impended was reluctantly abandoned. The 
President would fain carry Grant’s approval with him 
in the devious courses which already promised an ex¬ 
tension of rule, as the name of the successful General 
was a tower of strength all over the Union. Congress 
was eager to crown him with honors; private citizens, 
in their bounty and munificence, gave him wealth and 
possessions; he was the hero of society. 

162. —iEeconstruction caused a quarrel between 
Congress and the President, who recognized state gov¬ 
ernments in Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas and Louis¬ 
iana, and appointed provisional officers in the other 
states which had seceded, claiming that the Union had 
never been broken, and that therefore they had never 
actually lost their rights by their abortive secession. 
Conventions met in the states provisionally officered, 
repudiated secession ordinances and the war debt in¬ 
curred in the south, and ratified emancipation. The 
policy of Johnson was now to remove all legal disabil¬ 
ities, proclaim amnesty to secessionist offenders, except 
a specified class, on their sub.scribing the oath of 
allegiance, and still later, full pardons at successive 
stages were given to all secessionists. Before that 
point was reached the Thirteenth Amendment, ratified 
by the states, was engrossed in the Constitution, De¬ 
cember 28, 1865. The facility with which Johnson 
granted pai’dons upon personal applications was one 
cause of complaint against him. 

1 (JIB —Congress took Issue against the Presiden¬ 
tial policy, as it was claimed the power to readmit be- 


UNITED STATES. 


287 


longed to that bodj^ Proclamations and orders, while 
the land was at peace, could have no power, in the 
ej’es of Congress, and bills were passed over the veto, 
providing for the continuance in office of civil servants 
until the Senate indorsed their removal; the protection 
of freedmen and destitute wliites in the south, and for 
the security of the colored race in their newly conferred 
civil rights. These acts, covering the Freedmen’s Bureau, 
tenure of office, and civil rights, constituted an open 
breach. Tennessee was restored to her position, having 
accepted the fourteenth amendment, but the other states, 
under Johnson’s provisional appointees, refusing acqui¬ 
escence, were placed under military rule starch 2, 1867. 
Generals in charge of the contumacious districts con¬ 
ducted elections to remodel state constitutions, and 
after much bitterness there were governments estab¬ 
lished in the several states on such terms as satisfied 
the demands of Congress. One state will serve to 
illustrate the action every where, as the general features 
were the same, and local peculiarities are of little mo¬ 
ment here. The State of Arkansas, controlled by 
Union troops in 186-1, amended its constitution and re¬ 
organized its legislature ; but when the test was ap¬ 
plied by Congress, the state, willing to accept read mis¬ 
sion to its former rights, would not remove the disabil¬ 
ities of the Union party. Military rule succeeded for 
four years, and in 1868, all the demands of Congress 
having been conceded, the state was readmitted to the 
Union, over the veto of President Johnson. Alabama, 
Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and North and South 
Carolina came in at the same time, June 24, 1868, un¬ 
der similar conditions. Thus stood the quarrel be¬ 
tween the executive and the legislative branches of 
the government for years, while the country ])ursued 
its course, slowly recovering its former tone. The rev¬ 
enues at the close of the war, from revenue stamps, 
taxes on incomes and manufactures, duties on imports 
and other sources, reached the enormous aggregate of 
$300,000,000 per year; but the interest on the war 




238 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

debt was $130,000,000 ; still the debt had been reduced 
by $31,000,000 in 1866, before the extra troops had 
been entirely disbanded. 

164. —IhiE Kemoval of Stanton, the Secretary 
of War, by the Presinent in August, 1867, was sub¬ 
mitted to under protest by Mr. Stanton as contrary to 
the “ Tenure of Office Act,” passed in March. Gen. 
Grant was appointed in his stead by the President, and 
congress gave him such powers as subordinates seldom 
hold, so complete was their distrust of Johnson, but 
congress would not confirm the removal of Stanton. 
For some time Grant was able to pursue his course, 
not conflicting with either side ; but eventually when 
it became necessary to break the law or break with 
Johnson, he cast his lot against the President. The 
popularity of Grant rose to a greater height than ever. 
Johnson had no popularity save among the men who 
had endeavored to break the union. 

165. — Impeaching the President was the final 
stroke of Congress, the order being made by an im¬ 
mense majority on the 24th of February, 1868. The 
trial commenced on the 23d day of March, 1868, and re¬ 
sulted, on the 16th and 25th of May, in 35 votes against 
the President, to 19 in his favor. One vote changed 
and he would have been convicted of high crimes and 
misdemeanors by the required two-thirds majority. 
The remainder of his term in office was comparatively 
peaceful, and after its expiring he retired to Tennessee, 
where after two failures to secure election, he was sent 
to the United States senate in 1875, and died in office 
July 31st, in the same year. 

166. — Gen. Sherdian was commissioned to sup¬ 
press the Indian war in the southwest, which had grown 
to considerable dimensions in 1865-6, but the battle of 
Wacheta terminated the struggle in 1868, when Black 
Kettle, and a large body of his braves were surprised 
and slain by Custer’s cavalry. 

167. — Emperor Maximilian. Louis Kapoleon, 
of France, hoped for a confederate success, and while 


UNITED STATES. 


239 


the war was pending, he assisted the Imperialist faction 
in Mexico to a temporary ascendancy, during which 
the Archduke Maximilian, of Austria, was chosen 
Emperor. The United States protested at the time 
against Napoleon’s intervention, but while the civil 
war was pending, nothing more could be accomplished. 
The “ Monroe Doctrine ” came into operation as soon 
as the war was ended, and under our pressure the 
French troops were recalled, whereupon Maxmilian 
was shot by the Mexican liberals. The conduct of 
Napoleon in receding from the support of Maximilian 
has been much blamed, but the astute emperor of 
France saw that he must be defeated in a prolonged 
contest with this nation. 

168.— Joining the Nations. Cyrus W. Field 
conceived the idea in 1858, of uniting this continent to 
Europe by an electric cable, but the work was encom¬ 
passed by so many difficulties, that two cables had 
been lost before 1856. Further attempts were made 
in 1857 and in 1858, the British government and our 
own supplying the necessary ships, but the only re¬ 
sult was a partial and temporary success in 1858. 
While the war lasted capital was not available to 
renew the enterprise, but in 1865 the penultimate 
effort came so near success, that the cable was spliced 
and completed in 1866, after thirteen years heroic effort. 
The triumph for humanity cannot be stated in words. 

1^9, — William H. Seward, Secretary of State, 
conducted the purchase of Alaska from the Kussian 
government in 1867, the price paid for the peninsula 
350 miles long, by 25 miles average breadth, being 
$7,200,000. This region has since been annexed to 
Washington territory, its area being 580,107 square 
miles. The Fenian raid upon Canada, in 1866, was an 
attempt to embroil this country in a war with England 
for petty purpose.s, but there was no success attending 
the movement, and those who took part in it were 
made prisoners by our troops on their return to this 
territory. The treaty with China in 1868, when an 




240 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

embassy came to Washington from that empire, under 
Anson Burlingame, opened up to this country a much 
wider field for commercial enterprise than had ever be¬ 
fore been enjoyed by western nations, and the results 
of that movement are still progressing. The services 
of Mr. Seward under the Presidency of Lincoln and 
the attempt to assassinate him at the same time as the 
President fell, concentrated upon that able public ser¬ 
vant much attention, which was well deserved. The 
conclusion of the Johnson term of office was near at 
hand, he had “ swung round the circle ” in vain, 
the nomination sought bv him from the Democrats 
was not procured, and the Eepublicans nominat¬ 
ed and elected Gen. Grant, by a demonstrative ma¬ 
jority, Schuyler Colfax being elected Vice President. 
The nomination of the Democrats was given to Horatio 
Seymour and Gen. Frank P. Blair. 

Grant and the Republic. 1S09~1877. 

170. — Grant’s Terms. The enmity manifested 
by the late President had by no means impaired the 
popularity of the General, and his election was con¬ 
sidered certain from the first. His administration dur¬ 
ing the first term was peculiarly propitious for the 
nation, as the strifes which arose out of the war largely 
ceased after his inauguration on the 4th of March, 
1869. The war debt continued to be reduced, and the 
Alabama claims were, during his Presidency, referred 
to the arbitration of the Congress appointed by both 
powers, under the award of which Great Britain paid 
$15,500,000 for actual l()sses of ships’ cargoes and in¬ 
terest consequent upon that government having failed 
in due diligence in regard to the Alabama and the 
l^lorida privateers. The rules for international gov¬ 
ernment suggested by the award of the Tribunal at 
Geneva are even more valuable than the sum paid by 
England in pursuance of that decision. During the 
latter part of the first term, many of the Eepublicans 
withdrew from the Eepublican party and ran Horace 
Greeley for the Presidency, in conjunction with the 


UNITED STATES. 


241 


Democratic section of politicians ; but the result proved 
that the General’s popularity had not waned with the 
masses, as he received a larger vote on that occasion 
and a larger majority than any former President since 
the nomination of Gen. Washington. 

171. — The Union Pacific Kailroad, afterwards 
disastrous to many reputations, and often referred to 
as an evidence of the corruption that almost invariably 
grows out of civil wars, was in its inception a grand 
work, and it has been found of such value for the fa¬ 
cilities which it affords to commerce and passengers 
between the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts, that men 
are constrained to wonder how the business of the 
world was conducted before Boston, New York, Phil¬ 
adelphia and Washington were joined by the iron road 
to San Francisco, so that freight and travel can pass 
from one ocean to the otjier in the brief space of one 
week, and without the luxurious traveler losing one 
hour of his accustomed sleep. 

172. — The Fifteenth Amendment, guaranty¬ 
ing to every man the right of suffrage without regard 
to “race, color or previous condition of servitude,” 
originated under the administration of President Grant, 
and having been duly ratified, was announced as pari 
of the Constitution on the 30th of March, 1870. The 
negro is now under no disability in this country save 
such as that under which he labors by the law of na¬ 
ture. The Kevolution of 1776 has thus been carried 
to its legitimate conclusion. 

173. — General Amnesty. The nation having, 
to a great extent, recovered from the effects of the war, 
and popular feelings having considerably softened as 
regards the South and its ill starred effort, a general 
amnesty was proclaimed which covered all persons 
connected with the civil war; but the South cannot 
forget her own errors and sufferings so readily as the 
North, and in consequence the work of reconstruction 
within the law goes on much more slowly than the 
legislative action of Congress. It is not easy for men 

16 




242 COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

who have been from their birth accustomed to look 
upon colored persons as chattels and subordinates, to 
submit to a reconstruction which raises the negro in an 
electoral and legal sense to their level, but slowly or 
not, the work progresses, and the next generation will 
see the Southern states far on the way toward the 
North in general prosperity. It is much to the credit 
of the North that a man of such strength of mind and 
power over human affections as Alexander Hamilton 
Stephens, Vice President of the Confederate States, is 
now a member of Congress against whom no man cites 
his career in that office to his discredit, but it is often 
remembered by his personal friends who are many, 
even among his political antagonists, that on the night 
of November 14, 1860, in the legislature that had al¬ 
ready resolved upon secession, this man exerted all his 
eloquence to prevent the decision being arrived at; to 
which, once passed, he loyally adhered through peril 
and stotm. 

j 174. — Horace Greeley’s Candidature and 
death illustrate the strong feeling which prevailed 
among certain classes against Gen. Grant’s reeiection. 
If there was a man in the Union for whom the South 
had a hatred, which w^as not relieved by personal re¬ 
gard, that man w^as the Editor of the New York Tri- 
hune; yet all that animosity was smothered in the 
intense desire to defeat Grant; and after the Liberal 
convention in Cincinnati in May, 187*2, had given 
Greeley their nomination, the Democratic convention 
in Baltimore in the following July presented him to 
the Union as their candidate also for the office of Pres¬ 
ident. There were then, as there are now and will be 
for many years to come, whether the party in charge of 
public affairs may be changed or not, awkward suspi¬ 
cions of jobbing and corruption among high officers in 
the state, and in consequence many who had been 
supporters of the Kepublican party were inclined to 
draw back from the organization at that time ; besides 
which there was a belief that the men of the North 


UNITED STATES. 


243 


and South would shake hands across the bloody chasm, 
under a President nominated by the South, in con¬ 
junction with the North ; but all these circumstances 
combined, added to feelings of personal love which 
were inspired by Greeley among those who knew his 
sterling qualities, could not save him from a terrible 
defeat, >which unsettled his mental and bodily health, 
and terminated his life on the 29th of November, 1872. 

175. — Schuyler Colfax, who was Vice Presi¬ 
dent with Grant during the first term of office, came 
of good lineage, being a grandson of one of Washing¬ 
ton’s Generals. From 1854 to 1869, he sat in con¬ 
gress as one of the Kepresentatives of Indiana, and 
during six reelections his record was unimpeached. 
The conflict in Kansas called him to the front in con¬ 
gress, in 1856, when he depicted in eloquent terms the 
sufferings and wrongs of the free settlers. From his 
general suavity and evident capacity, Mr. Colfax was 
chosen Speaker of the House in 1863, the like honor 
being conferred upon him again in 1865 and in 1867; 
and it w'as said of him that he proved himself the 
most popular Speaker of the House since Henry Clay. 
When the nominations were made by the Kepublican 
party in May, 1868, his name was associated with that 
of Gen. Grant. It assisted him materially with the 
people that he had been during the civil war one of 
the steadiest and most trusted friends of Abraham 
Lincoln. The -election in November, 1868, gave to 
the Kepublican ticket 214 electoral votes out of a total 
of 294. The name of Mr. Colfax became unpleas¬ 
antly mixed up with the proceedings of “ The Credit 
Mobilier of America,” an organization chartered in 
Pennsylvania in 1859, and reorganized in 1864, to 
carry on the construction of the Union Pacific Kail- 
road. The breath of suspicion which then for the 
first time blurred the good repute of Mr. Colfax, pre¬ 
vented his renomination, probably, in 1872, but it is 
onlj^ just to the ex-Vice President to say, that there 
was no evidence of corrupt action on his part, and that 






244 COUNTEIES of NOETIT AMFBICA. 

his entire innocence of the charges laid at his door is" 
an article of faith with millions of his countrymen. 
There was a large party in the country only too glad 
to bring down a man of such high standing in the 
ranks of the Republicans, because their chances must 
needs be improved by the defeat of their political 
opponents, and for that reason it was deemed advisa¬ 
ble to substitute the name of Henry Wilson as Vice 
President in the second nomination of Gen. Grant, 

176. — Oakes Ames, son of a blacksmith in Eas¬ 
ton, Mass., and himself brought up to the same trade, 
having become wealthy as a manufacturer of Agricul¬ 
tural implements, was in great repute as a financier in 
'congress, where he sat for eleven years, from 1862 to 
-1878. When the Union Pacific Railroad was to be 
'constructed, Mr. Ames was one of the manipulators 
of the Credit Mobilier, and when lacer than this, there 
was a congressional investigation as to his proceedings 
among his fellov/ members, he appears to have either 
wantonly, or by inadvertance, cast a stigma on Mr. Col¬ 
fax, by exhibiting in his writing upon a check for a con¬ 
siderable sum, the initials of “S. C.,” which he con¬ 
strued to mean Schuyler Colfax. There was, how¬ 
ever, no evidence that the money went into the hands 
of the Vice President, and there is positive evidence 
that the check never went through his account. 
Oakes Ames died May 8, 1873, while the public mind 
was still undecided as to his share in the transaction. 

177. —Henry Wilson, the successor of Schuyler 
Colfax, commenced life as a New Hampshire farm lad, 
with the barest rudiments of an education, to which he 
added all that lay in his power after arriving at man’s 
estate. Not a great man himself, it was his good for¬ 
tune to be born at an era when simple fortitude and 
honesty secured him association with some of the 
foremost minds of his time after he had made his way 
upward from the humble occupation in which he 
began life. Mr. Wilson was one of the fastest friends 
of Charles Sumner, and after the shameful assault 


T^NITED STATES. 


245 


upon that gentleman by Preston 'S. Brooks, his re¬ 
marks in congress had the effect of concentrating upon 
him the hatred of the proslavery party for a time. 
During his term of office he was distinguished by his 
kind and conciliatory tone towards every section of 
the community, and he died before his term of office 
had expired. He appears to have been one of the 
stockholders in the Credit ^fobilier organization, but 
to have gone into the venture as a mere business spec¬ 
ulation, without any knowledge of a current purpose 
being entertained by any of the parties. Unfortu¬ 
nately, so many schemes ot personal aggrandizement 
have been traced to congress within the past few 
years, in the fearless investigations originated by the 
Republican party, irrespective of persons, jdace or 
associations, that the public have become censorious 
and suspicious, and for that reason the record of 
Henry 'Wilson was very narrowly scanned by friends 
and foes, but no damaging fact could be discovered. 

178. — General Increase. There was a pro¬ 
posal that Santa Domingo, forming part of the Island 
of Ilayti, should be annexed to the United States, 
and a committee of eminent men nominated by the 
President to visit the Island and report upon the prop¬ 
osition, was very favorably impressed in 1871, but 
congress was not convinced by the report submitted, 
and the application was not acceded to. Cuba has 
peculiar clamis upon this country, considering its geo¬ 
graphical position, and the brave struggle that has 
been maintained by its people for many years against 
the oppressive and soulless rule of Spain ; but the 
.country has not yet seen its way to an assumption of 
the quarrel, and after viewing the question from every 
point, it does not appear to be the manifest duty of 
this goverment alone to right the wrong of Cuba, un¬ 
less other circumstances should require war with 
Spain, and the release of Cuba should then arise as an 
incident in our proceedings. Nebraska came into the 
Union thirty-seventh in the list of states, on the first 




246 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


of March, 1867, having been organized as a territory 
under the same act as Kansas, in the 3 ^ear 1854. The 
first named state had not the same charms for a slave¬ 
holding proprietary as Kansas, and therefore i-t grew 
more slowly than its neighbor and was saved from the 
terrible warfare that distracted Kansas for j^ears. The 
state will advance by slow degrees to very considera¬ 
ble importance, but for many reasons does not seem 
likely to keep pace with Kansas, which has advan¬ 
tages as to soil and a very considerable start in popu¬ 
lation. Colorado has also been admitted as a state. 

XIII. SKETCHES OF STATES. 

Alahamfi. 

1 . — The area of the State is 50,772 square miles. 
This region was first explored b}^. the Spainards and 
French ; first settled b}^ the latter in 1702, at Mobile. 
The name of the state w/is taken from the Alibarnons, 
an Indian tribe near the Gulf Coast. Its signification 
is unknown. Until 1798 Alabama formed part of the 
State of Georgia. In that ^mar it was organized as a 
territory, embracing also the country subsequently 
included in Mississippi. In 1819 it was admitted into 
the Union. 

2. — The mineral treasures of Alabama, although 
not so valuable as those of the more western states, are 
of considerable importance. Gold is found in the 
central part of the state, but only in small quantities. 
Iron ore and marble are also found, and the coal 
measures of value cover an extensive area in the 
northern part of the state. 

3. —Alabama has a warm, semi-tropical climate. 
The northern part is much colder than the southern, 
not only on account of its higher latitude, but also of 
its greater elevation. 

4. — Alabama belongs to the great forest region of 
the continent. The northern part of the state was, or 
is still, to a considerable extent, covered with forests 
of hickory, poplar, cheshnut, oak, maple, mulberry, 


UisITED STATES. 


247 


etc. In the southern part of the state there occurs a 
fair growth of magnolia, and other sub-tropical trees, 
while the extensive tracts of country, consisting of 
drift ridges and sandy plains, produce the pitch, and 
other southern pines. The river bottoms are covered 
with cottonwood trees and canebrakes. 

5.—The animals of Alabama present no very at¬ 
tractive features. In the thinly settled sections, there 
still occur bears, deer, wolves, foxes, raccoons and opos¬ 
sums. The rivers abound with fish, water turtles, and, 
in the southern part alligators. The rattlesnake is not 
unfrequently met with. 

0. — The population in 1870 was 996,992 (521,482 
were white, and 475,510 colored). Of the whole, 
987,030 were native of the United States, and only 
9,962 born in foreign countries. 

7. — Alabama is an agricultural state. In 1860, 
there were over 19,000,000 acres in farms, and in 1870, 
although the number of acres was less, the number of 
farms was greater. The great staple of the state is cot¬ 
ton. In commerce and manufacturing the state is 
making very considerable progress. 

8. — The state government is nearly the same as 
that of other states, differing only in unimportant par¬ 
ticulars. The governor, lieutenant governor, secretary 
of state, treasurer and attorney general, are chosen for 
two years by the electors of the state. The auditor is 
chosen for one year. The elections take place on the 
Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The 
House of Kepresentatives must not exceed 100 mem¬ 
bers ; the Senate must be not less than one-fourth and 
not more than one third of the number of representa¬ 
tives. All male residents of the state 21 j^ears old, 
born in the United States or naturalized, who have 
resided in the state six months preceding an election, 
shall be citizens. The supreme court consists of a 
chief justice and associate judges, and has appellate 
jurisdiction only. 

9. — The constitution provides for the establish- 




248 COUNTEIES OF NOKTH AMERICA. 

ment throughout the state, in each township, of one or 
more free schools. The University of Alabama, lo¬ 
cated at Tuscaloosa, is placed under the management 
of the board of education. The Medical College of 
Alabama, located in Mobile, and the Law School at 
Montgomery, which were chartered in 1860, are 
branches or departments of the University. 

ArTicmsas. 

10. — The area of the state is 52,198 square miles. 
It was first settled by the French, in 1685, at Arkan¬ 
sas Post. The state derives its name from the Arkan- 
sa tribe of Indians. The territory was originally em¬ 
braced within the boundaries of Louisiana, and was 
purchased, in 1803, from the French government, by 
Thomas Jefiferson. In 1812, it was separated from 
Louisiana and organized into a separate Territory, and 
in 1836 it was admitted as a state. 

11. — This state possesses valuable mineral re¬ 
sources. Zinc and iron are found in large quantities. 
Lead is also abundant, and copper occurs in some 
localities. There is a considerable deposit of Arkan¬ 
sas whetstone, which is considered the best in the 
world. Coal is also found. The state abounds in 
many fine mineral springs. 

12. — The climate in Arkansas is mild and agree¬ 
able. The soil is mostly covered with pine forests, 
although there are some prairies of considerable ex¬ 
tent. Grand Prairie is nearly one hundred miles long 
and thirty miles broad. In the hilly parts the forests 
consist of oak, maples, hickory, etc., while the rivers 
are fringed with groves of cottonwood, cypress and 
gum trees. In the southern part of the state pine for¬ 
ests predominate. 

13. —Agriculture is the principal industry of the 
state, and the staple product is cotton. Stock raising 
is conducted on a large scale. Manufacturing is on 
the increase, and there are ample facilities for the en¬ 
couragement of that industry. Arkansas has a large 
river trade, exporting all surplus products to ISTew Or- 


UNITED STATES. 


249 


leans. The large rivers of the state-afford over 1,000 
miles of navigation. 

U. —The constitution provides that the general 
assembly shall establish and maintain free schools. It 
further provides for a state university, with an agricul¬ 
tural department. The state board of education con¬ 
sists of a superintendent and ten district superintend¬ 
ents. The progress of education in the state has not 
been great, but efforts in that direction are now meet¬ 
ing with better encouragement, and there are promises 
of improvement. The state institutions are in a fair 
state of efficiency. 

15. — The government of the state has but few 
notable features. The governor, lieutenant-governor, 
secretary of state, auditor, treasurer, attorney-general 
and superintendent of public schools, are cfiosen by 
the qualified electors of the state for a term of four 
years. The house of representatives consists of 82 
members, chosen for two years, and the senate, of 24 
members, chosen for four years. The legislature meets 
every two years, on the first Monday of January. All 
male persons, born in the United States, or natural¬ 
ized, or having declared their intention to become cit¬ 
izens of the United States, who are twenty-one years 
old and upward, shall have resided- in the state for six 
months next preceding an election, and are at the time 
actual residents of the county in which they offer to 
vote, are electors. The supreme court consists of a 
chief justice and four associate justices. It has appel¬ 
late jurisdiction and the supervision of all inferior 
courts. It holds annually two terms. The judges ol 
the supreme court are appointed by the governor for 
eight years. The circuit courts have original jurisdic¬ 
tion over criminal cases not otherwise provided for by 
law. The judges and attorneys of the district courts 
are appointed for four years by the governor, with the 
advice and consent of the senate. 

Cali for » ia. 

10. — The area of California has been computed at 


250 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


160,000 square miles. The lands subject to overflow, 
known as the “ Tule lands,” comprise 5,000,000 acres, 
and the mountains cover an area of nearly 26,000,000 
acres. California was ceded to the United States by 
the treaty of peace whicli terminated the war with 
Mexico in 1848, and was admitted into the Union as 
a state in 1850. The state was first settled by the 
Spaniards, in 1769, at San Diego. It derives its name 
from a character in an old romance. The climatic 
conditions of the state vary according to location and 
elevation, but upon the whole the state has a very 
healthy climate, both for animal and vegetable life. 

17. — The vegetation of the state is remarkable. 
The number of species of trees is small compared with 
those of the eastern portions of the continent, nor is 
the extent and compactness of forest nearly so great as 
there. The great interior valley consists mainly of 
prairies, only the water courses being fringed with 
narrow belts of cottonwood and other deciduous trees. 
The coast ranges produce forests not remarkable for 
variety or extent. The valle 3 ''s are park-like, as the 
trees grow in graceful clumps. Yarious kinds of oak 
and conifers predominate everwhere. The shrubby 
undergrowth consists of the “chamiro,” the “manzan- 
ita,” called by the settler the “ California'lilac,” and 
various shrubby oaks, each furnished with as many 
thorns as there are points to leaves and branches, mak¬ 
ing what is known as the “chaparal,” impenetrable 
thickets, rendering part of the state quite inaccessible. 
The glory of the coast ranges is the redwood {sequoia sem- 
pervirens), a coniferous tree of great size and beauty of 
form. It frequently attains a height of 275 feet, and a 
circumference at the base of 50 feet. In the Sierra Ne¬ 
vada there are extensive forests, consisting mainly of 
pines, firs and other coniferous trees. The most re¬ 
markable species among these is the “Big Tree” {se¬ 
quoia gigantea), which is found exclusively scattered 
over limited areas in the Sierra, over 4,000 "feet above 
the sea level, and, as far as known, between 36° and 


UNITED STATES. 


251 


38° 15' latitude. There are eight xlistinct patches or 
groves of big trees. The one in Calaveras county, on 
the road which crosses the Sierra at the Silver Pass, 
was the first discovered and is the most accessible. It 
contains about one hundred trees, varying in height 
from 256 to 325 feet, and in circumference, ten feet 
above the ground, from 31 to 15 feet. There are other 
groves similar to it. 

18. — In relation to miniiifr, verv much more mio-ht 
be said than our space can admit of. The first gold 
discovery was made in 1818, by 1. W. Marshall, while 
digging a race for a saw mill of Capt. Sutter. As soon 
as the news of it became known, thousands of adven¬ 
turers from the eastern states, from Europe, and even 
from distant China, flocked to the land of promise, and 
ever since, California has held the first place among the 
the gold producing countries of the world. Gold is 
obtained by being washed out of the soil, or by crush¬ 
ing the quartz rock containing the metallic veins, in 
mills. The washing process on a small scale is called 
“placer mining,” and is not now much followed in the 
state. Hydraulic mining is placer mining on a large 
scale, and is still a highly remunerative pursuit. It 
requires much outlay of capital. Large quantities of 
water are carried down from the mountains in flumes 
or ditches, and immense hills, hundreds of feet high, 
are washed away until the gold bearing gravel is 
reached. The metal is saved in long sluice boxes, 
through which the earth and water are run, in the bot¬ 
tom of which gold is caught by quicksilver; then the 
mass of earth and gravel is run off into some deep val¬ 
ley or river, and it is this operation which often renders 
hydraulic mining so extremely costly. The chief pro¬ 
cess of obtaining gold in California at present is quartz 
mining, and this is likely to remain, as the veins are 
rich and abundant. Silver mining is also carried on 
to a large extent. 

19. — Agriculture is a prominent and paying indus¬ 
try in California. The rains begin late in October; 



252 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

the grass is green all winter; plowing begins on the 
first of December, and sowing is continued even into 
March. Thus the farmer has three or four months to 
put in his crops. Corn is planted from March to May, 
and harvested as late as December. After the middle 
of April the rains cease, and the whole harvest season 
is absolutely without rain. The great valleys of the 
San Joaquin and the Sacramento embrace the far 
greater part of the farming lands of California; but 
many of the valleys of the coast ranges, and those 
south of the San Bernardino Mountains, are equally 
productive. With so large a body of most fertile lands 
and so favorable a climate, provided the farmer adapts 
himself to the peculiarity of the seasons, agriculture is 
already the principal occupation of California. 

20. — The Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Secre¬ 
tary of State, Comptroller, Treasurer, Attorney-Gen¬ 
eral, Surveyor-General, and Superintendent of Public 
Instruction are chosen for four years, commencing with 
the first Monday in December after election. The last 
election for state officers was in September, 1875. The 
legislature meets biennially on the first Monday of 
December of the odd years. It consists of forty Sena¬ 
tors and eighty Representatives. The Supreme Court 
consists of a Chief Justice and four Associate Justices. 
It has appellate jurisdiction in all cases of equity, in all 
cases involving the title or possession of real estate, or 
in which the matter in controversy amounts lo $300, 
and in all criminal cases amounting to felony on ques¬ 
tions of law alone. The state is divided into fourteen 
judicial districts, in each of which there is a district 
court. The term of office for the Justices of the Su¬ 
preme Court is ten years; for the Judges of the Dis¬ 
trict Courts, six years, and for Judges of the County 
Courts, four years. 

Colorado. 

21. —This state was admitted to the Union in 1875. 
It has an area of 104,500 square miles, and the surface 
is varied, sometimes mountainous, in other places level, 


; UNITED STATES. 253 

and in others broken and uneven.' The climate is 
favorable. Stock raising is a profitable industry. 

22 .—Mining operations date as far back as 1858, 
when gold was taken from placers near the site where 
now stands the city of Denver. Afterward followed 
the discovery of the rich deposits of gold, silver, cop¬ 
per, lead and zinc in various portions of the mountain 
region. IVfining is now chiefly carried on in the coun¬ 
ties of Gilpin, Dark, Clear Creek, Summit, Lake and 
Boulder. Gold is mostly found intermixed with sil¬ 
ver, and silver with copper and lead. The value of 
precious minerals, obtained during 1870, has been esti¬ 
mated at about $4,000,000, of which $1,500,000 were 
yielded by the placers, and the remainder by quartz 
veins. The census reports the value at only $859,374. 
Copper pyrites occur in the gold and silver mining 
districts, and silver-bearing galena (lead) is also found. 
Coal beds have been discovered in the mountainous 
districts and in the parks, and will doubtless aid ma¬ 
terially in the development of the mining and indus¬ 
trial interests. Salt occurs near Fair Play in South 
Park, but the cost of furnace evaporation has been 
found too great to leave a profit. In several localities, 
however, dry and comparatively pure salt is found. 
Mineral springs are very abundant in the territory, par¬ 
ticularly such as contain sulphur. Those in the Mid¬ 
dle Park range in temperature from 100° to 116° Fahr., 
and are found to be efficacious in rheumatic and scrofu¬ 
lous diseases. 'In the San Juan Mountains, not far 
from the southern boundary of the territory, is the 
Pagora Spring, which has a temperature of 200°, and 
is reported to possess great curative power. Another 
large sulphur spring is situated near the Eaton Pass, 
to the east of the San Luis Park. 

23 . — The constitution of Colorado was framed by 
a convention, on August 12, 1865, and adopted by the 
people September 5 of the same year. The capital 
was formerly at Golden City, but is now at Denver. 
The legislature consists of a council of 13 members, 





254 COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

and a house of representatives of 26 members. The 
general election is on the first Tuesday of October. 

Connecticut. 

24. — This, one of the thirteen original states, de¬ 
rives its name from an Indian word meaning long 
river. It was first settled at Windsor, by the English, 
in 1633. It was admitted into the Union in ITSk It 
has an area of 4,674 square miles. The surface is 
pleasantly diversified hy hills and valleys, but there 
are no lofty mountains. Among the mineral treasures 
of Connecticut, building stone is foremost. White 
marble is also quite abundant. Granite is largely 
shipped from the coast to New York and other places. 
There are valuable copper mines near Bristol, and, in 
the vicinity of Middletown, lead is found, though not 
in paying quantities. 

25. — The climate of Connecticut is similar to that 
of its sister New England states, being marked by ex¬ 
tremes of heat and cold' and sudden changes. The 
population was formerly almost exclusively of Eng¬ 
lish blood, but, during late years, the Irish have come 
in largely. The higher portions of the surface are 
well adapted to stock raising, hence cattle, butter and 
cheese constitule the principal articles of export. The 
extensive, rich valleys produce the grains usually 
grown in the Temperate Zones, in great abundance. 
The cultivation of tobacco has been successfully car¬ 
ried on for many years, and is becoming more profita¬ 
ble every year. In proportion to the population, Con¬ 
necticut is one of the foremost manufacturing states 
in the Union, the great majority of the inhabitants 
being directly or indirectly interested in some branch 
of manufacturing. 

26. — The schools of Connecticut enjoy a well-earned 
popularity. There are three colleges in the state: 
Yale College, at New Haven; Trinity College, at Hart¬ 
ford (Episcopal), and the Wesleyan University, at 
Middletown (Methodist). With Yale College there are 
connected a theological seminary, a law school, a 


UNITED STATES. 255 

medical school, and the Sheffield scientific school. 
By an act of the legislature the latter has been con¬ 
stituted the college for the promotion of agriculture 
and mechanic arts, and has received the land appro¬ 
priation bestowed by congress for this purpose. The 
other professional schools are: the Theological Insti¬ 
tute of Connecticut (Congregational), at Hartford ; the 
Berkeley Divinity School (Episcopal), at Middletown ; 
the Episcopal Academy, at Cheshire, and the Connecti¬ 
cut Literary Institute at Suffield. There are twenty- 
five incorporated academies in successful operation. 
Seven cities and many villages support high schools. 
The charities of the state occupy a high place in the 
progress of the state. 

-^7. — The government of the state is about the 
same as that of the other New England states. Tlie 
governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state and 
controller are chosen annually and hold office from 
the first Wednesday in May. The senate consists of 
twenty-one members, chosen by districts ; the house 
of representatives of 237 members. The senators and 
representatives are chosen annually. The commis¬ 
sioner of the school fund is appointed by the legisla¬ 
ture. Every male citizen of the United States, who 
shall have attained the age of twenty-one years, who 
shall have resided one year in the state, and six 
months in the town where he offers to vote, and who 
is able to read any article of the constitution, is 
entitled to the privileges of an elector, upon taking 
the oath prescribed by law. The supreme court of 
errors consists of one chief judge and three associate 
judges, who also are judges of the superior court. 
This court has final and conclusive jurisdiction of all 
matters brought by way of error from the judgment 
or decrees of any superior court. The superior court 
consists of six judges, exclusive of those who are 
judges of the supreme court. It has jurisdiction of 
all causes which may be brought before it. The 
judges of both courts are appointed by concurrent 





256 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


vote of the senate and house of representatives, and 
hold office for eight years, but are disqualified when 
seventy years of age. 

Delaware. 

28. — Delaware is one of the original “Thirteen.’*’ 
It received its name in honor of Lord Delaware. The 
territory embraced within its boundaries was first settled 
in 1638 by the Swedes at Wilmington, and has an 
area of 2,120 square miles. In 1655 it became a de¬ 
pendency of the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam, 
and together with this colony fell into the hands of 
the English in 1664. In 1682 the English govern¬ 
ment made it a part of the William Penn grant; but 
in 1701 it was separated from Pennsylvania, though 
subject to the same governor down to the war of inde¬ 
pendence. 

29. —Delaware occupies the northeastern portion 
of the peninsula which separates Delaware Bay from 
Chesapeake Bay, and which forms a plain of but little 
elevation above the sea level. Through the center of 
this peninsula extends from north to south a broad 
swell of ground, somewhat higher than the sea coast, 
covered with swampy tracts, from which the small 
streams issue. Delaware includes a portion of this 
higher ground and thus forms a plain gently inclining 
fi’om the west to the shores of the Delaware Bay on 
the east. 

30. — The climate of Delaware is mild, being tem¬ 
pered by the nearness of the ocean. Agriculture is 
profitably pursued and the industries of the state are in 
good condition. The manufacturing interest is of 
great importance, there being over 800 establishments 
in the state. 

31. — The educational interests of Delaware are 
very prosperous. The state has three colleges. Del¬ 
aware College, located at Newark, has a scientifie 
department and an agricultural college. St. Mary’s 
College is at Wilmington, and Brandywine College at 
Brandywine. 


UNITED STATES. 


257 


32. — The government is similar'to that of other 
states. The governor is elected by the people for 
a term of four years, and he appoints the secretary of 
state and the attorney general. The treasurer and 
auditor are elected by the legislature for two years. 
The senate consists of nine members and the house 
of twenty-one, elected for two years. The judicial 
power is vested in a court of errors and appeals, a 
supreme court, a court of chancery, an orphans’ court, 
a court of oyer and terminer, a register’s court and 
justices of the peace. Dover is the capital. 

Florida. 

33. — Florida is derived from a Spanish word 
meaning blooming. The state was first settled at St. 
Augustine, by the Spaniards, in 1565. It has an area 
of 50,268 square miles, including the peninsula, which 
extends into the Atlantic from the North American 
Continent on the southeast. The surface is flat and 
quite low. The climate is of a tropical character. The 
winter is comparatively dry, and is equable and brac¬ 
ing. Indeed, the winter months in Florida offer, gen¬ 
erally, such delightful and healthful weather that the 
state is visited annually by many thousands of north¬ 
ern visitors in search of pleasure and health. The 
vegetation of the peninsula is varied. The low saw 
palmetto and tall and graceful cabbage palm (both 
species of chamserops); the Spanish moss, trailing 
from the mighty limbs of the live oak and cypress; 
the mangrove, clothing and concealing with its dense 
growth the shore islands, and the groves of wild or¬ 
ange trees, strongly arrest the attention of the visitor 
from the north. The dry sandy tracts are occupied 
by forests of red pine, while the interior limestone 
ridge produces hickory, white oak, gum and other 
hard woods. The animal life is abundant. The mana¬ 
tee or sea cow was formerly frequent, but is now al¬ 
most extinct. Alligators are numerous. Deer, bears, 
panthers and wild turkeys abound. Paroquets, cur¬ 
lews, and other birds of brilliant plumage enrich the 

17 




258 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

woods and waters. The mullet, river trout, pompano 
and other excellent fish swarm in the rivers and la¬ 
goons. The green turtle is caught on the sea shores, 
and the gopher in the interior. Scorpions, centipedes, 
stinging insects and venomous snakes are also not 
rare, but serious accidents from them are infrequent. 

34. — The chief product of the soil is corn and cot¬ 
ton. Manufacturing has gained considerable head¬ 
way, and the commercial interests of the state are in a 
fair degree of prosperity. 

35. — The government of the state has some inter¬ 
esting features. The new state constitution was 
adopted in February, 1868. It provides that slavery 
shall not exist in the state; that there shall be no civil 
or political distinction on account of color, and that 
the state shall ever remain a member of the American 
Union. The Governor and Lieutenant Governor are 
chosen by the qualified electors, and hold their offices 
for four years. The Secretary of State, Treasurer, 
Comptroller, Attorney General, Superintendent of 
Public Instruction, Commissioner of Immigration and 
Adjutant General are appointed by the Governor and 
confirmed by the senate. 

36. — Tlie members of the assembly, 53 in number, 
are chosen biennially, and the 24 senators for a term 
of four years. The sessions of the Legislature are an¬ 
nually held on the first Tuesday after the first Mon¬ 
day in January, and may extend to sixty days. Special 
sessions convened by the Governor cannot sit over 
twenty days. Every male of twenty-one years of age 
and over, who is a citizen of the United States, or who 
shall have declared his intention of becoming such, 
and who shall have resided in Florida for one year 
and in the county for six months, next preceding the 
election at which he shall offer to vote, shall be deemed 
a qualified elector. 

37. — The judicial power of the state is vested in a 
Supreme Court, Circuit Courts, County Courts and 
justices of the peace. The Supreme Court consists of 


UNITED STATES. 


259 


a Chief Justice arid two Associate Justices, who hold 
their offices for life or during good behavior. They 
are appointed by the Governor and confirmed by the 
senate. The Supreme Court holds three sessions an¬ 
nually at the state capitol. It has appellate jurisdic¬ 
tion. There are seven Circuit Judges, appointed by 
the Governor and confirmed by the senate, who hold 
their offices for eight years, and the state is divided 
into seven judicial districts. The judge must reside 
in the district to which he is assigned. The Circuit 
Courts have original jurisdiction in all cases in which 
the Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction, and they 
have final jurisdiction in all civil cases arising in the 
county courts in which the amount of controvery is 
$100 and more, and in all cases of misdemeanor. The 
County Judges are also appointed by the Governor 
and confirmed by the senate, and each judge holds his 
office for four years. 

Georgia. 

38. — The state of Georgia was named in honor of 
George II, and was first settled at Savannah, by the 
English, in 1733. It is one of the thirteen original 
states, and was admitted to the Union in 1788. The 
surface of the state has an area of 58,000 square 
miles, and is level, or but slightly undulating in some 
parts and mountainous in others. The difference in 
height above the level of the sea, and in latitude, pro¬ 
duces a difference in temperature. In some parts of 
the state the summer is very hot, while in others it is 
healthful and invigorating. 

30. — Iron and copper occur in quite large quanti¬ 
ties, and gold is found in limited quantities, and be¬ 
fore the discovery of gold in California, was consid¬ 
ered of considerable importance. Agriculture is by 
far the most important branch of industry in the state. 
The soil is YQvy productive, and the cotton product is 
nearly always large. Before the war, Georgia had 
made considerable progress in manufacturing. This 
branch of industry has started up again vigorously 





260 COUNTKIES OF NOETH AMERICA. 

since the war. Local commerce in Greorgia is increas¬ 
ing, but direct foreign commerce is small. 

40. — Georgia records three Universities: the State 
University, at Athens; Oglethorpe University (Pres¬ 
byterian), at Milledgeville, and Mercer University 
(Baptist), at Eenfield, with 18 teachers and 379 pupils. 
The 28 colleges and 123 academies have respectively 
133 and 226 teachers, with 2,583 and 6,550 pupils. 

41. —The government of Georgia has been well 
reconstructed. The new constitution was adopted in 
convention in March, 1868, and ratified by the people 
in the next month. It declares all citizens of the Uni¬ 
ted States residing in the state to be citizens thereof. 
The Governor is chosen by the people for four years; 
and for the same period are elected by the General 
Assembly the following officers: the Secretary of 
State, Comptroller General, Treasurer and Surveyor 
General. The Senate consists of 44 members, one- 
half elected biennally for four years, and the House 
of Eepresentatives, elected biennally for two years. 
The Judiciary of the state comprises a Supreme Court, 
a Superior Court for each judicial district. Courts in 
Ordinary and Justices of the Peace. The Supreme 
Court has appellate jurisdiction only. The Superior 
Courts have exclusive jurisdiction in cases of divorce, 
in criminal cases, where the penalty is death or con¬ 
finement in the penitentiary, in cases respecting titles 
to land, and in equity cases. They have also power 
to correct errors in inferior judgments, and to issue 
writs that may be necessary for carrying into effect 
their powers. The Judges of the Supreme and Su¬ 
perior Courts, the Attorney General, Solicitor Gen¬ 
eral and the District Judges and Attorneys are ap¬ 
pointed by the Governor with the advice and consent 
of the Senate. 

Illinois. 

42. — The name is derived from an Indian word 
meaning Eiver of Men. The state was first settled at 
Kaskaskia by the French, in 1702, and in 1819 the 


UNITED STATES. 


261 


state was admitted to the Union. .The surface, with 
an area of 55,405 square miles, is a pl;dn, gentl}" 
sloping from the northeast towards the Mississippi. 
The climate is marked by great extremes. The sum¬ 
mers are very warm and the winters very cold. Large 
portions of the surface consist of prairie. Coal abounds 
in large quantities and is worked with great profit. 
Copper, limestone, etc, are also found. The state 
surpasses any other commonwealth in the Union in 
the fertility of its soil. Some of the prairies are bottom 
lands and are said to be overlaid by loam from 25 to 
100 feet thick. Illinois is also a manufacturing state, 
having over $205,000,000 employed in that industry. 
The state is favorably situated for commerce, and is 
prosperous in a large degree in all her commercial in¬ 
dustries. 

43. —The School System of Illinois is excellent. 
In 1870 there were 11,050 public schools, with 20,- 
097 teachers (8,791 male, and 11,306 female), and 677,- 
623 pupils. “The total income of these schools was 
$7,810,265, mostly raised by taxation and public funds. 
The eighty classical, professional and technical schools 
had 371 teachers and 11.755 pupils, and the 705 other 
not public schools, 3,388 teachers and 78,397 pupils. 
The six universities had 56 teachers and 1.277 stu¬ 
dents, including 148 females. The State Industrial 
University, founded by act of the legislature in 1867. 
and located in Champaign county, was opened in 1868. 
It has over 1,000 acres of improved farming lands, 40 
acres of which have been set apart for gardens, nur¬ 
series and specimen orchards. The remainder is to be 
used for experimental and stock farms. The course 
of this institution is science, literature and arts. Nei¬ 
ther the classical nor modern languages are taught.* 
The State Normal University was opened in October, 
1857, near the city of Bloomington, and is in a pros¬ 
perous condition.” 

44. — The Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Secre¬ 
tary of State, Auditor, Treasurer, and Superintendent 





262 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

of Public Instruction, are elected by the people for 
four years. The general election is held on the first 
Tuesday in November. The Senate consists of fifty- 
one members, elected for four years; the House of 
Eepresentatives of one hundred and fifty-three mem¬ 
bers, elected for two years. The Legislature meets 
biennially on the first Monday in January in the odd 
years, 1871, 1873, etc. The Supreme Court has ap¬ 
pellate jurisdiction only, and consists of three divisions, 
corresponding to the three divisions of the state. 
There are twenty-eight Circuit Courts. Each county 
has a County Court. The State Capital is at Spring- 
field. Chicago is the metropolis of the state, and there 
are forty-two incorporated cities in the state. 

In dia na. 

45. — The State was first settled by the French at 
Vincennes, in 1716. The area exceeds 83,809 square 
miles, and the surface is gently undulating, but not 
mountainous. Agriculture is the principal pursuit, 
and manufacturing has gained much headway. 

46. — Indiana has the largest school fund of any 
state in the Union. The State has six Universities. 
These are the State University at Bloomington, Mon¬ 
roe county; was opened in 1840, and comprises a col¬ 
lege of arts, literature and science, a college of law, a 
college of engineering, a college of military science and 
a normal school. The libraries embrace over 5,000 
volumes, and the philosophical and chemical apparat¬ 
us is very complete. The faculty consists of the Pres¬ 
ident, ten Professors and two Tutors ; the number of 
students was, in 1870, 304. Indiana Asbury Univer¬ 
sity, located at Greencastle, Putnam county, is under 
the control of the Methodists. Wabash College, with 

• which a military department is connected, is at Craw- 
fordsville; Earlham College, near Kichmond; the 
University of Notre Dame, at Notre Dame; Salem 
College, at Bourbon ; Fort Wayne College and Con¬ 
cordia College, at Fort Wayne. In 1870, there were 
in the state 8,871 public schools (including 69 high 
and 371 graded schools), with 11,042 teachers. 


UNITED STATES. 


263 


47. —The government of the state of Indiana dif¬ 
fers from that of other states, in some respects. “ The 
Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of State, 
Treasurer, Auditor, Attorney General and Superin¬ 
tendent of Public Instruction, are chosen by the peo¬ 
ple at the general election, held on the second Tues¬ 
day of October. The Governor and Lieutenant Gov¬ 
ernor hold office four years; the others two years. 
The Legislature meets biennially in the month of 
January, in the odd years of 1873, 1875, etc., and 
comprises a Senate of 50 members, and a House of 
Representatives of 98 members. The judiciary con¬ 
sists of a Supreme Court, Circuit Courts and a Court 
of Common Pleas. The Supreme Court is composed 
of four judges, chosen by the people for seven years; 
the judges of the Circuit Courts are elected for six 
years, and those of the Court of Common Pleas for 
foi^r years.” 

Iowa. 

48. — The name Iowa comes from an Indian term, 
meaning drowsy ones. The state was first settled at 
Burlington by the English in 1833, and was admitted 
to the Union in 1846. The territory within the limits 
of the state has an area of 50,914 square miles. It 
forms a part of a vast plain, and there are no moun¬ 
tains or ranges of hills within the state. The climate 
is free from injurious extremes, its general character 
being a salubrious dryness. Agriculture is the princi¬ 
pal pursuit, and manufacturing is progressing rapidly. 

49. —Iowa justly boasts a grand school system. 
The State University at Iowa City has an endowment 
in land and other property of $195,582, and worthily 
occupies its place at the head of the school system of 
the state. It had, in 1870, 25 teachers and 455 stu¬ 
dents, including 178 females, and embraced academic¬ 
al, law, medical and normal departments. The Agri¬ 
cultural College at Ames, Storey county, has an im¬ 
posing building, located on a fine farm of 648 acres, and 
contains a library, museum, cabinet of minerals, etc. 





264 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

50. — The Grovernraent of the state of Iowa does 
not differ in any great particular from that of other 
states. The Governor, Lieutenant Governor and Su¬ 
perintendent of Public Instruction are elected in each 
odd year for a term of two years. The Kegister of the 
Land Office, Secretary of State, Auditor and Treasurer, 
are elected in each even year, for the same length 
of service. The Senators, forty-nine in number, are 
chosen for four years : one-half being elected bien¬ 
nially. The House of Representatives consists of two 
hundred members, who are elected for two years. 
Every male citizen who has been a resident of the 
state for six months, and of the county in which he 
offers to vote, sixty days, is a legal elector. The 
judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court twelve 
district courts, and such courts as the general as¬ 
sembly may establish. The Supreme Court has appel¬ 
late jurisdiction only, and consists of four judges, 
elected by the people for six years. It exercises 
supervisory control over the inferior judicial tribunals. 
The District Courts have original jurisdiction in civil 
and criminal cases, in chancery and at common law. 
In 1868, the assembly established twenty-four circuits, 
in each of which a circuit judge is elected for four 
years. 

JKansas. 

51. —The name “Kansas” comes from an Indian 
term meaning Smoky Water. The state was admitted 
to the Union in 1861. The surface has an area of 
78,418 square miles and is mostly devoid of forests. 
Agriculture is the principal industry. 

52. — The Educational Interests of the State of 
Kansas are now in a very prosperous and efficient 
condition. The state has five universities. The State 
University at Lawrence was organized in 1864, and 
embraces a collegiate and a preparatory course. It 
has a splendid building, on a hill called Mount Oread, 
and is admirably provided with all the appliances 
required for the most advanced methods of instruction. 


UNITED STATES. 


265 


1 

i Professorships of drawing and practical chemistry 
have lately been added to the faculty. The library 
and the collection of apparatus are increasing rapidly. 

I In 1870, it had nine professors and 213 students. The 
Ottawa University wa^ organized in 1860 by the Bap¬ 
tist church of the state ; Lane University, at Lecomp- 
1 ton, in 1859 ; Baker University, at Baldwin City, in 

' 1858; and Highland University, at Highland, in 

; 1859. The census reports eleven classical institutions, 

I with sixty-three teachers and 904 pupils, and four 
! technical schools, inclusive of the State Agricultural 
i School at Manhattan, which has an endowment of 
90,000 acres, has ten instructors, 194 pupils, and a 
library of 8,000 volumes, Kansas had, according to 
the census, 2,068 organized school districts, with 1,663 
I public schools, having 1,864 teachers, and 58,030 

I pupils. The number of persons between five and 
twenty-one years of age was 109,242. The charit¬ 
able institutions already established are in success- 
j ful operation. The Asylum for the Insane is at 

Osawatomie, the Asylum for the Blind at Wyandotte 
City, and the Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb at 
Olathe. 

53. — The Government of the state of Kansas is 
much the same as that of the other states. The Gov¬ 
ernor, Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of State, Audi¬ 
tor, Treasurer, Superintendent or Public Instruction 
and Attorney General, are elected for a term of two 
years. The Senate is composed of twenty-five mem¬ 
bers, elected for two years, and the House of Represen¬ 
tatives of seventy-five m.embers, elected for one year. 
The Legislature meets annually on the second Tuesday 
in January. Male citizens of the United States, or 
persons of foreign birth, who shall have declared their 
intention to become citizens, are entitled to vote after 
having resided six months in the state and thirty days 
in the township. The Supreme Court consists of a 
Chief Justice and two Associate Justices, who are 
elected for six years. The state is divided into nine 



266 


COUNTKIES OF NOETH AMERICA, 


judicial districts, in each of which a District Court is 
held, the judges of which are elected for four years. 

Kentiichy. 

54. —The name Kentucky is derived from an 
Indian word meaning “dark or bloody ground.” 
The state was first settled in 1775 at Boonesboro by 
the English. The surface has an area of 37,680 
square miles, and is quite broken or undulating. 
The climate is mild and agreeable. Kentucky is 
abundantly supplied with productive coal beds and 
iron deposits. Agriculture is the principal pursuit, 
and manufacturing is pursued with profit. 

55. — Education is now receiving earnest attention 
by the citizens of the state, and the school system is 
very efficient. The most important of the higher in¬ 
stitutions of learning is the Kentucky University, with 
which is connected the Agricultural College. 

56. — The government consists of a Grovernor, Lieu¬ 
tenant-Governor, Auditor, Attorney-General and Su¬ 
perintendent of Public Instruction, elected by the peo¬ 
ple for a term of four years. The Governor is ineligi¬ 
ble for the four years succeeding the expiration of his 
term. If a vacancy occur in the office of Governor 
during the first two years of the term, it is filled by a 
new election; and if it occur during the last two years, 
the Lieutenant-Governor, and after him the Speaker of 
the House, becomes acting Governor. The Treasurer 
is elected for a term of two years. The Secretary of 
State is appointed by the Governor, by and with the 
advice of the Senate. The Senate comprises 38 mem¬ 
bers, who are chosen for four years, one-half biennially. 
The members of the House of Eepresentatives, num¬ 
bering 100, are elected for two years. The sessions of 
the legislature are biennial, and cannot continue longer 
than sixty days, without a two-thirds vote of the mem¬ 
bers of each branch. Every male citizen who has re¬ 
sided two years in the state, one year in the county, 
and sixty days in the precinct in which he ofifers his 
vote, is a legal elector. 


UNITED STATES. 


267 


57 . — The highest judicial tribunal of the state is 
the Court of Appeals, which has appellate jurisdiction 
over the final orders and judgments of all other courts 
in civil cases, where the amount in controversy ex¬ 
ceeds $50; or in cases of judgment granting divorce, 
or on a judgment of an inferior court from which an 
appeal is given to the Circuit Court. The Circuit 
Courts have original jurisdiction in cases where the 
amount in controversy exceeds $50 ; appellate jurisdic¬ 
tion in certain specified cases, and criminal jurisdiction 
for the trial of all offenses which may be prosecuted 
by indictment, and all prosecutions and final actions, 
except where exclusive jurisdiction is given to other 
courts. There are also county courts and justices of 
the peace. Judges of the Court of Appeals are elected 
for terms of eight years, one every second year, and 
the Judge having the shortest term to serve is Chief 
Justice. The Judges of the Circuit Courts are elected 
for six years, and the Justices of the Peace for four 
years. 

L,ouisiana. 

58 . — This state takes its name in honor of Louis 
XIV. It was first settled by the French at Biloxi, in 
1699, and was admitted to the Union in 1812. The 
surface throughout is a low, alluvial plain. The climate 
is warm, but with colder and more variable winters 
than the regions in the same latitude on the Atlantic 
coast. 

59 . — The vegetation is luxuriant, oranges, sugar¬ 
cane, bananas, and other tropical productions being 
raised. The cypress, cedar and yellow pine are among 
the principal trees. The lagoons abound in alligators, 
turtles and fish, while serpents and insects are numer¬ 
ous in the swamps. The soil of*Louisiana, in the river 
“ bottoms,” is good, and corn culture is profitable. Man¬ 
ufacturing is carried on to a very limited extent. 

GO. — Education is beginning to take a deeper hold 
of the people, and the school system is improving. 
The Louisiana State University, located at Baton 




268 


COUNTKIES OF NOETH AMEEICA. 


Eouge, was organized in 1860, and had, in 1870, 185 
students (here called cadets). Straight University, at 
New Orleans, is making steady progress, and gives 
promise of extended usefulness in the future. Union 
Normal School, also at New Orleans, is sustained by 
the Methodists. 

61. — The government consists of a Governor, Lieu¬ 
tenant-Governor, Secretary of State, Auditor, Treas¬ 
urer, Superintendent of Education and Attorney-Gen¬ 
eral, chosen for the term of four years. The Senate is 
composed of 86 members, who are elected for four 
years (one-half biennially). The House of Eepresen- 
tatives consists of 101 members. The constitution 
provides that it shall not exceed 120 members and not 
be less than 90. Every male person of the age of 
twenty-one years and upward, and born or naturalized 
in the United States, and a resident of the state one 
year next preceding an election, and the last ten daj^s 
within the parish in which he offers to vote, shall be 
deemed an elector. 

62. — The judicial power is vested in a Supreme 
Court, District Courts, Parish Courts and Justices of 
the Peace. The Supreme Court has appellate jurisdic¬ 
tion only, and is composed of a Chief Justice and four 
Associate Justices. The justices of this court are ap¬ 
pointed by the Governor, with the advice and consent 
of the Senate, for eight years. The Supreme Court 
holds its sessions at New Orleans from the first Mon¬ 
day of November to the end of May. The state is 
divided into twelve districts, in each of which is one 
district court, except the district of New Orleans, which 
has seven. These courts have unlimited jurisdiction in 
criminal cases; original jurisdiction in all cases in 
which the amount in dispute exceeds $500, and appel¬ 
late jurisdiction in cases in which the amount in dis¬ 
pute exceeds $100. 

Maine. 

63. — The state was first settled at Bristol by the 
French in 1625. It has an area of 81,766 square 


UNITED STATES. 


269 


miles, and its surface is quite mountainous. The cli¬ 
mate is salubrious; the winters are long and fre¬ 
quently severe, but free from sudden changes; the 
summers are pleasant but short. Maine is one of the 
best timbered states of the Union. There are no val¬ 
uable minerals, but slate, suitable for roofing and 
schools, is found in the northern part of the state. 
Agriculture is pursued with great profit, and manufac¬ 
turing has become an immense interest. 

64. — Education holds a high place in the enter¬ 
prises of the state. There are two normal schools for 
the training of teachers. The Eastern, at Castine, 
was opened in 1867 ; the Western, at Farmington, in 
1864. The number of academies and private semi¬ 
naries is nearly seventy. The four colleges of Maine 
had, in 1871, 281 students. Bowdoin College, the 
oJdesi, of these institutions, was organized in 1802, 
and is located at Brunswick. The State College of 
Agriculture and the ^lechanic Arts was established in 
1868, and had, in 1871, 71 students. 

65. — Maine w^as a part of Massachusetts until 
1820. By an act of Congress approved on the 8d of 
March, 1820, it was declared that on and after the 
loth of March, of the same year, the state of Maine 
should be admitted into the Union on equal terms 
with original states. The constitution provides that 
every male citizen of the United States, of the age of 
twenty-one years and upward, excepting paupers, per¬ 
sons under guardianship, and Indians not taxed, hav¬ 
ing his residence established in the state for the term 
of three months next preceding an election, shall be 
an elector for Governor, Senators and Eepresentatives 
in the town or plantation where his residence is estab¬ 
lished. The legislative power is vested in the House 
of Eepresentatives and a Senate. The House of Eep¬ 
resentatives shall consist of not less than 100 nor 
more than 200 members, to be elected for one year. 
The Senate shall consist of not less that twenty nor 
more than thirty-one members, to be elected also for 



270 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

one year. The Legislature shall convene on the first 
Wednesday of January, annually. 

(>6. — The Governor shall be elected by the quali¬ 
fied electors, and shall hold his office one year, from 
the first Wednesday of January. He shall be not 
less than thirty years of age, a born citizen of the 
United States, and have been five years a resident of 
the state. He shall nominate and, with the advice 
and consent of the Council, appoint all judicial officers, 
the Attorneys General, the Sheriffs, Coroners, Regis¬ 
ters of Probate, Notaries Public, and all other civil 
and military officers whose appointment is not other¬ 
wise provided for. The Council shall consist of seven 
persons, citizens of the United States, and residents of 
the state, to advise the Governor in the Executive 
part of the government. The Councilors shall be 
chosen annually by joint ballot of the Senators and 
Representatives in convention. The Secretary of State 
and the Treasurer shall be chosen annually, at the 
first session of the Legislature, by the Senators and 
Representatives in convention. 

67. — The judicial power is vested in a Supreme 
Judicial Court, and such other courts as the Legisla¬ 
ture shall, from time to time, establish. All judicial 
officers hold their offices for the term of seven years. 
Judges and Registers of Probate shall be elected by 
the people of their respective counties, and hold their 
offices for four years. Judges of municipal and police 
courts shall be elected by the people of their respective 
cities or towns, and hold their offices for four years, 

Maryland. 

68. — This state received its name in honor of Queen 
Henrietta Maria. It was first settled in 1634, at St. 
Mary’s, by the English. The surface has an area of 
9,356 square miles, and is undulating or level. A 
large number of creeks penetrate far into the interior, 
all of which have wide estuaries. The climate, tem¬ 
pered by the Atlantic and Chesapeake Bay, is mild 
and salubrious. 


UKITED STATES. 


271 


^ 69. — The chief mineral wealth of Maryland con¬ 
sists in bituminous coal and iron. The western por¬ 
tion of the state extends into the great Appalachian 
coal field,, and is very productive. Iron ore is ob¬ 
tained in paying quantities. The soil is very pro¬ 
ductive, and agriculture is a paying industry; manu¬ 
facturing is also an important industry. Education 
flourishes. 

70. — The government is securely adjusted. Every 
male citizen of the E^nited States, of' the age of 21 
years and upward, who has resided in the state one 
year, and in the legislative district or county in which 
he offers to vote, for six months, is entitled to vote. 
The executive power is vested in the Governor, who 
is chosen by the electors for four years. The Secre¬ 
tary of State, Commissioner of the Land Office, Adju¬ 
tant General and State Librarian, are appointed by the 
Governor by and with the consent of the Senate. The 
treasury department is administered by a Comptroller 
chosen by the voters, and a Treasurer appointed by 
the Legislature. Both hold office for two years. The 
Attorney General and the Superintendent of Labor 
and Agriculture are chosen in the same manner as the 
Governor, and hold office for the same term of four 
years. The Legislature consists of a Senate of twenty- 
four members and a House of Delegates of eighty six 
members. Senators are elected for four years; dele¬ 
gates for two. The judicial power is vested in a Court 
of Appeals, Circuit Courts of the counties, the several 
courts of Baltimore city. Orphans’ Courts, and Justices 
of the Peace. The Court of Appeals is composed of 
the Chief Judges of the first seven of the several judi¬ 
cial circuits of the state, and a judge from the city of 
Baltimore. The Chief Judge is designated by the 
Governor by and with the advice of the Senate. 

Maxsnch uscUh. ^ 

71. The state was first settled at Plymouth, in 1620, 
by the English. The surface has an area of 7,800 
square miles, and is greatly diversified. Two chains 





272 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


of Green Mountains traverse the western part of the 
state. The southwestern part of the state is low and 
sandy. The climate is cool. The winters are long 
and quite severe, the summers short and warm ; agri¬ 
culture and manufacturing are the principal industries. 
The state has a grand and complete system of railroads, 
and commerce flourishes. 

72. — The state has established educational institu¬ 
tions of all grades, and maintains them with great lib¬ 
erality. The Board of Education consists of the Gov¬ 
ernor, Lieutenant-Governor, and eight members ap¬ 
pointed by the Governor and Council. It has the gen¬ 
eral oversight of the public schools and educational 
statistics, and receives the reports which the persons in 
charge of every institution of learning in the state are 
required by law to make. The number of incorporated 
academies is 50, and of private schools about 500. The 
six colleges had, in 1870,137 teachers and 1,290 pupils. 
Harvard University, at Cambridge, the oldest college in 
the country, has 76 profcs.sors and nearly 1,200 students. 

73. — Idle state includes the original colonies of 
Plymouth (settled in 1620), and IMassachusetts Bay, 
(settled at Salem in 1628). In 1688, the colonies were 
united under one government. IMassachusetts adopted 
a constitution in 1780, and ratified tlie Constitution of 
the United States in 1788. The Governor, Lieutenant 
Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor and 
Attorney General arc chosen annually in November, 
and hold olTicc one year from the first Wednesday in 
January. A council, consisting of nine persons be¬ 
sides the Lieutenant Governor, has the function to ad¬ 
vise the Governor in the performance of his executive 
duties. The Senate consists of 40 member.s, no less 

.than 16 of whom form a quorum, and the House of 
Pepresentatives consists of 240 members, no less than 
100 of wdiom form a quorum. Every male citizen 
21 years of age, able to read the Consdtution and to 
write his name, who has resided in the state one year, 
and in his election district six months, and has paid a 




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UNITED STATES. 


273 


tax within two years, is entitled to vote. The Su¬ 
preme Judicial Court consists of one Chief Justice and 
live Associate Justices. It has exclusive cognizance 
of all capital crimes, and exclusive chancery jurisdic¬ 
tion and concurrent original jurisdiction of all civil 
cases, where the amount in dispute exceeds $4,000 in 
Suffolk county, and $1,000 in the other counties. 
The Superior Court consists of a Chief Justice and 
nine Associate Justices. It has civil jurisdiction in 
all cases where the amount in controversy exceeds 
$20, and criminal jurisdiction in all except capital 
crimes. The judges of both courts are appointed 
by the Governor, by and with the advice of the Sen¬ 
ate, and hold their offices during good behavior. 

Mich iffftn. 

74. — The state derives its name from an Indian 
term, meaning Great Lake. It was first settled by the 
French at Detroit in 1701. The surface has an area of 
52.198 square miles. Agriculture is the principal in¬ 
dustry. Manufacturing is progressing, and commerce 
is in a healthy condition. 

75. — Michigan has distinguished herself by her 
liberality in educational enterprises. The State Uni¬ 
versity at Ann Arbor is the largest college west of the 
Alleghany mountains, and ranks with the foremost 
institutions of its kind in the country. In 1870, it 
had 1,126 students and thirty-four professors. The 
numbers of students in the department of science, lit¬ 
erature, and the arts, was 477; in that of medicine and 
surgery, 340; and in that of law, 309. The university 
admits lady students. The Agricultural College, lo¬ 
cated at Lansing, was established in 1863, and has an 
endowment of 240,000. It had, in 1870, seven pro¬ 
fessors and 142 students. The three other colleges of 
Michigan are at Kalamazoo, Albion and Olivet. The 
State Normal school, at Ypsilanti, was opened in 1854, 
and embraces a training course and a higher course. 
In the Experimental School, the pupils of the Normal 
School practice actual teaching. 

18 




274 - COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

76. —^ The state of Michigan was admitted as a 
state into the Union, in 1837. The following officers 
are chosen biennially, by popular vote: Governor, 
Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, 
Auditor General, Superintendent of Public Instruc¬ 
tion and Adjutant General. The legislature meets 
bienniallj^, in the odd years, and consists of a Senate 
of thirty-two members, and a House of Representatives 
of one hundred members. The qualifications to vote 
are: He must be above the age of twenty-one years ; 
must have resided in the state three months, and in 
his election district ten days. The judicial power is 
vested in one Supreme Court, Circuit Courts, Probate 
courts and justices of the peace. The Supreme Court 
has superintending control over all inferior courts, and 
consist of four judges, who are chosen by the voters 
for eight years, one judge retiring every second year, 
unless reelected. The judges of the circuit court are 
chosen for six years. 

Minnesota. 

77. —The state derives its name from an Indian 
term meaning cloudy water. It was first settled by 
the Americans, at St. Paul in 1846, and was admitted 
to the Union in 1858. The surface has an area of 95,- 
274 square miles. Agriculture and manufacturing are 
the principal industries. 

78. — Iffie legislature of Minnesota, in 1851, pro¬ 
vided for the establishment of the University of Min¬ 
nesota, and in 1854, the building was begun on an 
eminence commanding a view of the Falls of St. An¬ 
thony. After many struggles, the institution is now in 
full operation, with a classical, agricultural and military 
establishment. It has 11 professors and 871 students. 
Three Normal Schools are in operation : the first at 
Winona, the second at Mankato, and the third at St. 
Cloud. The attendance was, in 1871, 498 students. 
An excellent system of public schools has been estab¬ 
lished in the state. 

70.—Minnesota was admitted into the Union in 


UNITED STATES. 


275 


1857. “ The Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Secre¬ 

tary of State, Treasurer and Attorney General are 
chosen for two years. The Auditor is chosen for three 
years. The Senate consists of 22 members, chosen for 
two years, one half each year; and the House of Repre¬ 
sentatives comprises 47 members, who are elected annu¬ 
ally. The legislature meets annually in the month of 
January. Citizens of the United States, who have re¬ 
sided four months in the state and ten days next preced¬ 
ing an election in the district, are legal voters. The 
judiciary comprises a Supreme Court, District Courts, 
Courts of Probate and justices of the peace. The Su¬ 
preme Court has original jurisdiction in such remedial 
cases as are prescribed by law, and appellate jurisdic¬ 
tion in all cases, both in law and in equity. It con¬ 
sists of a Chief Justice and two Associate Justices, 
who are elected for seven years. There are six district 
court judges, who are elected in single districts for 
seven years. The District Courts have original juris¬ 
diction in all cases of law and equity where over $100 
are in controversy, and in criminal cases where the 
punishment may be imprisonment for over three 
months, or a fine of over $100. 

MisftissipjH. 

80. — The state derives its name from an Indian, 
term, meaning Great Father of Waters. It was first 
settled at Natchez, by the French, in 1716, and was 
admitted as a state in 1817. The surface has an area 
of 47,156 square miles, and is quite undulating. The 
climate is warm, the summers are long and hot; the 
winters short and mild, the soil is fertile and the vege¬ 
tation luxuriant, hence agricultural pursuits are profit¬ 
able. 

81. — Education is now making progress. The 
State Normal School is located at Holly Springs, and 
admits none but those intending to become teachers. 
Tougaloo University, situated seven miles north of 
Jackson, is in successful operation under the manage¬ 
ment of the American Missionary Association. The 




276 - COUNTKTES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

“College at Pass Christian, Harrison county, was organ¬ 
ized in 1866, and includes a preparatory, collegiate and 
•commercial department. Mississippi College, at Clin¬ 
ton, Hinds county, commenced in 1868, with two col¬ 
lege and nine preparatory students, but is now attend- 
•ed by 160. It has been adopted by the Baptists of 
Arkansas as their state institution._ ^le University 
of Mississippi is located at Oxford, La Fayette county, 
^ind comprises three general departments ; a depart¬ 
ment of preparatory education, a department of science, 
literature and the arts, and a department of professional 
education. 

82. — The region now comprised in Mississippi was 
first visited in 154:0 by He Soto, a Spanish soldier of 
fortune. The settlement at Fort Rosalie (now Hatchez), 
in 1716, by a party of Frenchmen under Bienville, 
was the first permanent colony. At the peace of 
Paris, in 1763, Mississippi became part of the Eng¬ 
lish territory. In 1798, Mississippi including Alabama 
was erected into a territory, and in 1817 was admitted 
as a state into the Union. The present constitution, 
adopted by the convention in 1868, provides that all 
male inhabitants who are citizens of the United 
States, twenty-one years of age and over, who have re¬ 
sided in the state six months, and in the county one 
month next preceding the day of election, are qualified 
electors. The House of Representives consists of 107 
members, chosen every second year by the qualified 
electors. The Senate consists of 33 members chosen 
every four years. 

83. — The Governor and Lieutenant Governor are 
elected by the qualified electors, and hold their offices 
for four years. They must be at least thirty years of 
age, must have been citizens of the United States 
twenty years, and must have resided in the state two 
years next preceding the day of election. The Secre¬ 
tary of State, Attorney General, Treasurer and Audit¬ 
or of Public Accounts are also elected for four years, 
and must be at least twenty-five years of age. A 



UNITED STATES. 


277 


Sheriff, Coroner, Treasurer, Assessor and Surveyor 
are elected in each county for two years. The judicial 
power is vested in a Supreme Court, consisting of 
three judges, who are appointed by the Governor, by 
and with the advice of the Senate, for 9 years. The 
judges of the Circuit Court are appointed for six years 
and those of Chancery Courts for four years. 

Mifisouri. 

84 , — The state takes its name from an Indian 
term meaning muddy water. It was first settled by the 
French at St. Genevieve in 1755, and was admitted in¬ 
to the Union in 1821. The surface has an area of 
67,380 square miles and is nearly level, some parts 
being rough and broken. The climate is subject to 
great extremes. The summers are long and very hot, 
and the winters very cold. 

85 . — The mineral of Missouri is as great as that of 
any equal area on the globe, and its productions are 
distinguished not only for their immense quantity, but 
also for their excellence and purity. The coal depos¬ 
its of northern Missouri are a portion of the great Iowa 
field, and within the limits of the state measure 62,887 
square miles. Prof. G. C. Swallow, the state geolog¬ 
ist, estimates the amount of available coal at 134,435 
billions of tons. The smaller coal areas in other parts 
of the state, compared with this vast amount, are but 
of local importance. The iron deposits of Missouri are 
perhaps surpassed in extent by those of Michigan and 
Pennsylvania; but in neither of those states are such 
vast qualities of almost pure metal so near the surface 
or even upon it as here. Iron Mountain in St. Fran¬ 
cois county is 228 feet high, covers an area of 500 
acres, and its contents, of the finest ore, have been 
estimated at 16,555 millions of cubic feet, or 230,187,- 
075 tons. Pilot Knob, in Iron county, is 581 feet 
high (or 1,490 feet above the sea), and covers an area 
of 360 acres. Magnetic iron, interspersed with specu¬ 
lar iron, is found in immense quantities on Mt. Shep- 
perd, near Pilot Knob. Lead is, next to coal and iron, 






278 


COUKTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


the most important mineral production of Missouri, 
and is found in great abundance and of good qual¬ 
ity. The soil of Missouri is excellent, and agri¬ 
culture affords a large profit. Manufacturing has 
gained considerable headway, and commerce is very 
extensive. 

80. — Missouri provides good schools. The higher 
educational institutions of the state were the State 
University, at Columbia, with which an agricultural 
college is connected ; the Mining School, at Kolia ; 
three Normal Schools, at St. Louis, Kirksville and 
Warrensburgh; the Lincoln Institute, at Jefferson 
City, a seminary for colored teachers ; 19 colleges, 33 
seminaries and 92 high schools. All state educational 
institutions are strictly non-sectarian. 

87. — There are also numerous institutions not con¬ 
trolled by the state, the most prominent of which is 
the Washington University, at St. Louis, with an en¬ 
dowment of $700,000. The following institutions 
are controlled by Koman Catholics: St. Vincent’s 
Seminary, at Cape Grirardeau ; St. Louis University, 
at St. Louis; Stanislaus Seminary, at Florissant; the 
colle 2 :es at St. Louis and Hannibal: the Collegre of 
Christian Brothers, at St. Louis. They also have 9 
female schools, 23 parochial schools and 50 elementary 
schools. The Lutheran institutions are the Concordia 
Seminary and an academy at St. Louis, a higher fe¬ 
male school at St. Joseph, and about 50 parochial 
schools. 

88. — A new constitution was adopted by a con¬ 
vention in April, 1865, and ratified by the people in 
June; but has since then been modified by several 
amendments. The Governor, Lieutenant Governor, 
Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor, Register of 
Lands, Attorney General and Superintendent of Pub¬ 
lic Schools are elected for a term of two years, on the 
first Tuesday after the first Monday of November, in 
the even years, 1872, 1874, etc. The Senate compri¬ 
ses 34 members, elected for four years, one-half bien- 


UNITED STATES. 


279 


nially. The House of Representati-ves consists of 138 
members, who are chosen for two years at the general 
biennial election. The General Assembly meets an¬ 
nually in the month of January. The judicial power 
is vested in a Supreme Court, 29 Circuit Courts, Infer¬ 
ior Courts, County Courts and Justices of the Peace. 
The Supreme Court is composed of five Justices 
elected for 10 years and has appellate jurisdiction. 
The judges ol the circuit courts are elected for six 
years. 

Nebraska. 

89. — The state derives its name from an Indian 
term, meaning Water Valley. It was admitted to the 
Union in 1867. The surface has an area of 75,000 
square miles and is, for the most part level. Agricul¬ 
ture is the principal industry. 

90. — Nebraska has more organized schools, and 
better school facilities than were ever enjoyed by any 
state of the same age. The land endowment for the 
schools embraces one-eighteenth of the entire area of the 
state, 2,623,080 acres., The Governor is of the opinion 
that the whole educational system, from common 
school to university, can be made entirely independ¬ 
ent of the state. An excellent Normal School for the 
training of teachers is located at Peru, Nemaha coun¬ 
ty. The State University is at Nebraska City. The 
State Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, at Omaha, was 
opened in 1869. At Lincoln, are the State Lunatic 
Asylum and the State Penitentiary.” 

91. — Nebraska was organized as a territory in 
May, 1854. A constitution was framed by the state 
convention and ratified by the people in 1866, and in 
January, 1867, Nebraska was admitted into the Union 
as a state. The executive power is vested in a Gover¬ 
nor, Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of State, Treas¬ 
urer and Auditor. These officers are elected for two 
years, except the Auditor, who is elected for four years. 
The legislature consists of a Senate and a House of 
Representatives. The former has thirteen members, 


280 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


the latter twenty-nine members. All male citizens of 
the United States, who have resided six months in the 
state, and ten days in the district in which they offer 
to vote, are legal electors. The Judiciary comprises a 
Supreme Court, District Courts, Probate Courts, and 
Justices of the Peace. The Supreme Court consists of 
a Chief Justice and Two Associate Justices, elected for 
a period of six years. The state is divided into three 
judicial districts, in each of which one of the Supreme 
Court Justices holds district court sessions. 

Nevada, 

92. — This state takes its name from a Spanish 
word meaning snow covered. It was admitted into the 
Union in 1864. The surface has an area of 112,000 
square miles, and embraces the great plain lying be¬ 
tween the Sierra Nevada and the Wahsatch Moun¬ 
tains, and known to geographers as the Great Basin. 
The climate is characterized by great extremes — cold 
winters and hot summers, and by a very dry atmo¬ 
sphere, with but little rain or snow. 

93. — Nevada is a prominent mining state. In 
1872, it produced nearly one-half of all the bullion 
produced west of the Missouri Eiver. The state then 
had 162 mills and furnaces, with 1,904 stamps, and 
capable of reducing daily 5,183 tons of ore. The 
mills turned out, for 1871, $20,010,175, and for 1872, 
$23,719,212 in gold and silver bullion, besides several 
thousand tons of lead, copper and antimony. The 
counties which produced more than $1,000,000 in bul¬ 
lion, in 1871, were the following: Lander, $2,099,014; 
Lincoln, $3,604,833; Storey, $10,644,704: White 
Pine, $1,223,266. The richest silver and gold deposit 
of the state, and probably in the world, is the famous 
“Comstock Lode” in the Virginia Kange, Storey 
county. It crops out on the eastern slope of the 
range at an altitude of about 2,000 feet above the 
level of the plains, and has been clearly traced about 
four miles, within two of which are the portions that 
have thus far been developed. The “Sutro Tunnel,” 


UNITED STATES. 


281 


now in progress of construction, is intended to facili¬ 
tate the working of the mines on the Comstock Lode, 
by penetrating the vein at a greater depth. When 
completed it will make easy the drainage of the mines, 
and will allow the ores to be brought to the surface at 
an easy grade, thus avoiding the expense of pumping 
and hoisting from great depths. 

94. —The soil is good, and agriculture is in a pros¬ 
perous condition. Stock raising is also a profitable 
pursuit, and manufacturing is gaining considerable 
head way. 

95. — Education is progressing, but is yet in its in¬ 
fancy. The government is well planned. Every male 
citizen of the United States, of the age of twenty-one 
years and upwards, who shall have actually resided in 
the state six months, and in the district or county 
thirty days next preceding an election, shall be en¬ 
titled to vote. The legislative authority is vested in 
the Senate and Assembly. The members of the Assem¬ 
bly, thirty-six in number, are chosen biennially for 
two years. The senators, eighteen in number, are 
chosen at the same time and places as members of the 
assembly, for four years. The sessions of the Legis¬ 
lature are biennial, commencing on the first Monday 
of January next ensuing the election of members of 
the assembly. The executive government consists 
of the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of 
State, Comproller, Surveyor General and Attorney 
General, who are elected by the qualified electors at 
the time and places of voting for the members of the 
Legislature. They hold their offices for four years. 

96. — The judicial power is vested in a Supreme 
Court, Districi Court, and in Justices of the Peace. 
The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Justice and 
two Associate Justices, who are elected by the people 
and hold their offices for the term of six years. This 
court has appellate jurisdiction in all cases of equity, 
in all cases at law in which is involved the title or 
possession of real estate and mining claims; and on 


282 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

questions of law in criminal cases, in which the case 
charged amounts tq felony. The state is divided into 
nine judicial districts. The District Judges are elected 
by the people for the term of four years. 

Netv llani2>shire. 

97. — This state takes its name from Hampshire 
county, Eng. It was first settled at Portsmouth, by 
the English, in 1626, and was admitted into the Union 
in 1788. The surface has an area of 9,280 square 
miles, and is hilly and mountainous. The climate is 
rigid, the winters being long and very severe. The 
summers are mild and pleasant. Agriculture and 
manufacturing are the principal industries. 

98. — The schools are well supported. An excel¬ 
lent State Normal School is at Plymouth. It was es¬ 
tablished in 1870. The higher institutions of learning 
comprise Dartmouth College at Hanover, which was 
founded in 1769, and had, in 1871, twenty-three in¬ 
structors and 360 students. The “ Chandler Scientific 
School ” is also at Hanover. The “ Methodist Bibli¬ 
cal Institute,” a theological college, is at Concord. 
The New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the 
Mechanic Arts was opened in 1870, and occupied Cul¬ 
ver Plall at Hanover. It has nine instructors. 

99. — The early settlements in New Hampshire 
were annexed to Massachusetts in 1641, but became a 
separate province in 1741. It was one of the thirteen 
original states, framed a constitution in 1776, and rati¬ 
fied the United States Constitution June 21, 1788. 
The legislative power is vested in the Senate and 
House of Eepresentatives. The former consists of 
twelve members, who hold their office for one year; 
the latter has one member for every town, parish or 
place entitled to town privileges, having 150 ratable 
male polls of twenty-one years of age or upwards; 
two members for every town, etc., having 450 ratable 
polls, and so proceeding in that proportion. The rep¬ 
resentatives are chosen by ballot for one year. The 
Legislature is officially styled the General Court of 


UNITED STATES. 


283 


Kew Hampshire. The Governor is chosen annually 
in March; must be thirty years of age; must be of 
the Protestant religion, and must have been an inhab¬ 
itant of the state for seven years next preceding the 
election. There are annually elected five Councilors, 
for advising the Governor in the executive part of 
government. All judicial officers, the Attorney Gen¬ 
eral, Solicitor, Sheriff, Coroners, Kegisters of Probate, 
and general field officers of the militia, are appointed 
by the Governor and Council. The Secretary of State, 
Treasurer and Commissary General are chosen by 
joint ballot of the Senators and Kepresentatives. The 
Superior Court is the only tribunal of general juris¬ 
diction. 

Netv Jersey. 

100. — This state received its name in honor of 
Sir George Carteret. It was first settled by the Eng¬ 
lish, at Elizabethtown, in 1664, and was admitted to 
the Union in 1787. The surface has an area of 8,320 
square miles, and is level in the southern part but 
hilly and broken in the northern part. The climate 
is mild and agreeable. Minerals of iron ore and zinc 
are found in large quantities. Agriculture and manu¬ 
facturing, especially the latter, are very important in¬ 
dustries in New Jersey. 

101. — Education is liberally supported. The 
Board of Education consists of the Governor, Attor¬ 
ney General, Secretary of State, President of the Sen¬ 
ate, Speaker of the House, and the Trustees of the 
Normal School. This board appoints the state and 
county superintendents of the public schools. The 
State "Normal School at Trenton is in successful ope¬ 
ration, and had, in 1872, 84 male and 194 female 
students. The Farnum Preparatory School at Bev¬ 
erly, and the Model School, are connected with the 
Normal School. The College of New Jersey, at 
Princeton, is the foremost institution of learning in 
the state, and in its aims and purposes resembles Yale 
and Harvard Colleges. In 1871 it had 18 instructors 




284 COUNTKIES OF NOETH AMEEICA. 

and 880 students. Eutgers College, comprising an 
academic and a scientific school, is at New Brunswick. 
The Glenwood Collegiate Institute is at Matawan, and 
Seton Hall College at South Orange. There is also a 
college at Bordentown, and another at Burlington. 
The Presbyterian Seminary at Princeton was founded 
in 1812, and the Drew Theological Seminary at Madi¬ 
son, in 1867. 

102.— New Jersey was first settled by Danes, Swedes 
and Dutch, and was dependent on New York until 
1738, when it was made an independent province. It 
was one of the thirteen original states, adopted a con¬ 
stitution in 1776. and ratified the United States Con¬ 
stitution, Dec. 18, 1787. Every male citizen of the 
United States, of the age of twenty-one years, who 
shall have been a resident of the state one year, and 
of the county in which he claims to vote, five months 
next before the election, shall be entitled to vote for 
all officers that now are or hereafter may be elective 
by the people. The legislative power is vested in a 
Senate and General Assembly. The two houses meet 
yearly on the second Tuesday in January. The Sen¬ 
ate consists of one member for each county (at present 
twenty-one), chosen by the legal voters for three years. 
The Assembly is composed of members annually 
elected, who are apportioned among the counties ac¬ 
cording to the number of their inhabitants, provided 
that each county shall at all times be entitled to one 
member, and thie whole number of members shall not 
exceed sixty (which is at present the actual number). 

108. — The executive power is vested in a Gov¬ 
ernor, who is elected by the legal voters for three 
years, shall not be less than thirty years of age, and 
shall have been a citizen of the United States for at 
least twenty years, and a resident of the state seven 
years next before his election. The.Secretary of State 
is appointed by the Governor by and with the consent 
of the Senate, for a term of five years. The Treasurer 
is elected b}^ the Legislature for one year; the State 


UNITED STATES. 


285 


Librarian is appointed for three years; the Superin¬ 
tendent of Public Schools is appointed by the Trustees 
of the School Fund for two years, and the Adjutant 
I General and Quartermaster General are appointed by 
I the Governor. 

104. — The judicial power is vested in a Court of 
Errors and Appeals ; a Court for the Trial of Impeach¬ 
ment, a Court of Chancery, a Prerogative Court, a Su¬ 
preme Court, Circuit Courts and such inferior courts 
as now exist or may hereafter be established by law. 

I The Court of Errors and Appeals consists of the 
Chancellor, the Justices of the Supreme Court, and six 
Judges, who are appointed for six years. 

I 105. — The House of Assembly has the power of 
impeachment; and all impeachments are tried by the 
' Senate. The Court of Chancery consists of a Chan¬ 
cellor, w^ho is the Ordinary or Surrogate-General, and 
I Judge of the Prerogative Court. The Supreme Court 
i consists of a Chief Justice and four Associate Justices. 
Justices of the Supreme Court, Chancellor and Judges 
of the Court of Error and Appeals, are appointed by 
the Governor with the consent of the Senate. The 
Justices of the Supreme Court and Chancellor hold 
their office for seven years. The Circuit Courts are 
held in every county by one or more justices of the 
Supreme Court, or a judge appointed for that pur¬ 
pose. 

New Yorlc. 

106.—This state takes its name in honor of the 
Duke of York. It was first settled by the Dutch in 
1613, at New York City. The surface has an area of 
47,000 square miles, and is greatly diversified, includ¬ 
ing rolling plateaus, level valleys, and lofty mountains. 
The climate is characterized by great extremes, but, 
upon the whole, is salubrious. The mineral treasures 
are great, yet there is no coal or precious metals. Iron 
ores are abundant. The soil is good, but varies in 
different portions; agriculture has attained to great 
importance, and manufacturing is conducted on a scale 





286 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

at once stupendous. The commerce of New York is 
greater than that of any state in the Union. 

107. — Education is keeping pace with the other 
interests. There are eight Normal schools, and the 
number of higher educational institutions is very large, 
and includes Columbia College, University of New 
York, Manhattan College and Kutgers College for fe¬ 
male students — all in New York city; Cornell Uni¬ 
versity at Ithaca: the St. Lawrence University at Can¬ 
ton ; the Alfred University at Alfred ; Hamilton Col¬ 
lege at Clinton ; the University of Rochester ; Elmira 
Female College; Yassar College for young ladies, near 
Poughkeepsie; Ingham University at Le Roy ; the 
Baker Collegiate Institute at Brooklyn, and the cele¬ 
brated Collegiate and Polytechnic Institute also at 
Brooklyn. The twenty-two higher institutions, exclu¬ 
sive of the professional schools, had, in 1871, 3,207 
pupils and 303 instructors. There were further, thirty- 
six medical schools, eleven theological seminaries, and 
five law schools. The 232 academies had nearly 30,- 
000 pupils and 1,061 instructors. An agricultural 
college is connected with Cornell University, a poly¬ 
technic department with the University of New York, 
and a mining school with Columbia College. 

108. — The history of the government is full of in¬ 
terest. Hendrick Hudson, an English navigator, in 
the service of the Hutch East India Company, was the 
first European who (in 1609) entered the Bay of New 
York and explored the river now bearing his name. 
Four years later the Hutch established trading posts on 
Manhattan Island and below Albany. In 1614 the 
colony received the name of “ New Netherlands,” but, 
in 1664, the Huke of York appeared with a squadron 
before New Amsterdam and demanded its surrender. 
Gov. Stuy vesant had to yield, and the colony received 
the name of New York. The Hutch retook it in 1673 ; 
but in the following year it was finally ceded to the 
English by the treaty of Westminster. New York is 
one of the original thirteen states of the Union ; framed 


UNITED STATES. 


287 


a constitution in 1777, and ratified tHe United States 
constitution July 26, 1788. The state constitution has 
been amended several times. The constitution framed 
by the convention in session from June to October, 
1846, was ratified at the general election in November 
following In 1866 the measure of holding a con¬ 
vention was approved by the people, and in June, 1867, 
the convention met, and terminated its labors in Feb¬ 
ruary, 1868. The new constitution was submitted to 
the people, but only the amended judiciary article was 
adopted. With this exception, the constitution of 
1846 is still in force. The legislative authority is 
vested in a Senate and Assembly. The Senate has 
82 members, and the Senators are chosen for two years. 
The Assembly consists of 128 members, who are 
chosen for one year. The executive authority is vest¬ 
ed in a Governor, who must be thirtj^years of age, and 
must have been a resident of the state for five years 
next preceding an election. The Governor is elected 
for two years at the times and places of choosing mem¬ 
bers of the Assembly. The Lieutenant Governor is 
chosen for two years and is president of the Senate, 
but only has a casting vote therein. The Secretary of 
State, Comptroller, Treasurer, Attorney General and 
State Engineer and Surveyor are chosen at a general 
election for two years. Three Canal Commissioners 
and three Inspectors of State Prisons are chosen for 
three years. 

109. — The Assembly has the power of impeach¬ 
ment. The court for the trial of impeachments is com¬ 
posed of the President of the Senate, the Senators, or 
the major part of them, and the Judges of the Court 
of Appeals, or the major part of them. The Court of 
Appeals is composed of .a Chief Judge and six Associ¬ 
ated Justices, who are chosen by the electors for a 
term of fourteen years. The state is divided into eight 
districts, each of which has a Supreme Court. The 
Supreme Court has general jurisdiction in law and 
equity, subject to the appellate jurisdiction of the 



288 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

Court of Appeals. Five of the justices reside in the 
district which is the citj^ of New York, and four in each 
of the other districts. The .justices of the Supreme 
Court are elected for fourteen years. Every county 
has its County Court, Surrogate Court, and several 
Justices of the Peace. 

North Carolina. 

110. — This state takes its name in honor of Charles 
11. It was first settled by the English at Albemarle 
Sound in the seventeenth centur^^ The surface has 
an area of 45,000 square miles, and is considerably 
diversified. The climate of the southern part of the 
state is very warm ; that of the northern portion, more 
agreeable. The soil, upon the whole, is fertile, yet 
there are many barrens and swamps. Manufacturing 
and commerce have gained considerable headway. 

111. — The schools are under successful manage¬ 
ment. The principal higher institutions are the North 
Carolina University, at Chapel Hill (founded in 1795); 
Wake Forest College, Davidson College, Trinity Col¬ 
lege, in Kandolph county; Olin College, in Iredell 
county; North Carolina College, at Mount Pleasant; 
the Concord Female College, at Statesville; the Daven¬ 
port Female College, at Lenoir; the Chowan Female 
Collegiate Institute, at Murfreesborough, and the Ka- 
leigh Baptist College, at Ealeigh. 

112. — The history of the state and the peculiar 
character of its government are subjects worthy of no¬ 
tice. North Carolina was settled by emigrants from 
Virginia in 1650, at Albemarle, and received a charter 
in May, 1663. It adopted a state constitution in De¬ 
cember, 1776, and ratified the United State Constitu¬ 
tion in November, 1789. The new state constitution 
was framed by a convention in 1868, and ratified by 
the people in April of the same year. The state was 
readmitted into the Union by act of Congress, June 25, 
1868. The legislative authority is vested in a Senate 
and House of Eepresentatives. The two branches of 
the “General Assembly” meet annually, on the third 






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CHARGING VP MISSIONARY RIDGE» 


CAPTURE OF THE FROr.ir 





































JJNITED STATES. 


289 


Monday in Kovember. The Senate consists of 50 
Senators, chosen biennally by ballot. The House of 
Eepresentatives is composed of 120 Eepresentatives, 
elected biennially by the counties respectively. Each 
Senator must be not less than twenty-five years of age, 
must have resided as a citizen in the state two years, 
and must have resided in the district from which he is 
chosen, one year immediately preceding the election. 
Each member of the House must be a qualified elector, 
and must have resided in the county for which he is. 
chosen one year immediately preceding his election. 

113. — The executive department consists of a 
Governor, a Lieutenant-Governor, a Secretary of State, 
an Auditor, a Treasurer, a Superintendent of Public 
Works, a Superintendent of Public Instruction and an 
Attorney-General, who are elected by the qualified 
electors for a term of four years. The Secretary of 
State, Auditor, Treasurer, Superintendent of Public 
Works and Superintendent of Public Instruction con¬ 
stitute ex officio the Council of State, who advise the 
Governor in the execution of his office, and three of 
whom constitute a quorum. 

114, — The Senate is the court for the trial of im¬ 
peachments. The Supreme Court consists of a Chief 
Justice and four Associate Justices. The state is 
divided into twelve judicial districts, for each of which 
a judge is chosen, who holds a Superior Court in each 
county in said district at least twice a year. The 
Judges of the Supreme Court and of the Superior 
Courts are elected for eight years. The distinction 
between actions at law and suits in equity is abolished, 
and there is in the state but one form of action for the 
protection of private rights or the redress of private 
wrongs, which is denominated a civil action. Every 
male citizen twenty-one years of age or upward, who 
has resided in the state for twelve months, and in the 
county thirty days, preceding an election, is entitled to 
vote. 


19 





290 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


Ohio. 

115. — This state derives its name from an Indian 
word, meaning Beautiful Kiver. It was first settled at 
Marietta, in 1788, and was admitted to the Union in 
1802. The surface has an area of 39,964 square miles, 
and is pleasantly diversified. The agricultural and 
manufacturing industries of the state are very large and 
prosperous. Th-e climate is good. 

116. — There is perhaps no better system of pub¬ 
lic schools in the United States than in Ohio. “ Each 
township has a board of education, and each subdis¬ 
trict a local board of trustees, which manages its 
school affairs, subject to the control of the township 
board. All public schools are required to be in ses¬ 
sion at least 24 weeks during the year. The Probate 
Judge of each county appoints a board of school exam¬ 
iners, which has power to grant certificates to teachers 
for a term not exceeding two years. In 1865, a State 
Board of Examiners was created with power to issue 
certificates for life to teachers eminent for learning, 
skill and experience. Irreducible or special school 
funds were created by the sales of the lands appro¬ 
priated by Congress for school purposes. The state 
pays annually six per cent, interest on these funds to 
the counties and towns.” The Ohio University, a 
state institution, founded in 1804, is located at Athens ; 
the Miami University is at Oxford; Oberlin College 
is at Berlin; the Baldwin University at Berea; Ken¬ 
yon College at Garnbier; Denison University at Gran¬ 
ville, etc. Ohio has no State Normal Schools. Of 
the nine Normal Schools, but one, the “ Southwest¬ 
ern,” receives subvention from the state school fund. 
The number of colleges, universities and academies, 
in 1871, was 93; nor is there any lack.of technical 
and professional schools. 

117. — Ohio was formed from the Northwestern 
Territory ceded to the United States by Virginia, in 
1783, and admitted into the Union as a state in 1803. 
“ The Governor, Lieutenant Governor and Treasurer 


UNITED STATES. 


291 


are elected by the people for two years, and for the 
same period the Secretary of State and Attorney Gen¬ 
eral ; but their elections take place in alternate years. 
Tlie Comptroller of the Treasury and the State School 
Commissioners are elected for three years, and the 
Auditor of State for four years. The three members 
c>f the board of public works are elected for three 
years, one going out of office each year. The mem¬ 
bers of the legislature — senators and representatives— 
are elected for two years. In 1872, the Senate con¬ 
sisted of 86 members, and the House of Eepresenta- 
tives of 105 members. 

118. — The judicial power of the state is vested in 
a Supreme Court, Courts of Common Pleas, District 
Courts, Probate Courts and Justices of the Peace. 
The Supreme Court consists of five judges, chosen by 
the people for a term of five years; one judge retiring 
from office each year. The judge having the shortest 
time to serve is Chief Justice. This court holds at 
least one term each year at Columbus, and such other 
terms as may be provided by law. The state is di¬ 
vided into nine common pleas districts, one of vviiich 
is formed by Hamilton county. The eight other dis¬ 
tricts are each divided into three subdistricts, for each 
of which one judge is elected for a term of five years.. 
District courts, composed of the judges of the com¬ 
mon pleas courts of the respective districts, and pre¬ 
sided over by one of the judges of the Supreme 
Court, are held in each county at least once in each 
year. White male citizens of the United States, 21 
years of age, who have resided in ihe state one year 
are entitled to vote.” 

Oregon. 

119 . —This state takes its name from a Spanish 
term meaning Wild Marjoram. It was first settled by 
Americans at Astoria, in 1811, and was admitted into 
the Union in 1859. The surface has an area of 
100,000 square miles, and is characterized by moun¬ 
tain chains. The climate is mild and remarkable for 



292 


COUNTRIES OE NORTH A:\rERTCA. 


•^equability.’ Gold has beeu found in lar^e quantities, 
and almost inexhaustible deposits of iron ore are with¬ 
in easy access. 

, 120. — Congress has donated to the state lands for 
educational and other purposes, as follows: 1. School 
lands proper, i. e., the 16th and 86th sections, or their 
equivalent, where portions of such sections were held 
by donation clairhants prior to the public surveys. 
■2. University lands, consisting of 72 sections, for the 
use and support of a state universit 3 ^ 3. Five hun- 
•dred thousand acres of land for purposes of internal 
improvement, and which have been designated as state 
lands. 4. Ninety thousand acres of land for the sup- 
Iport of an agricultural college. The higher educational 
^institutions were the following: The Pacific University, 
Ut Forest Grove (founded in 1848); the Willamette 
University (Methodist), at Salem; the Oregon College 
(Baptist), at Oregon City; the Holy Angels’ College, 
at Vancouver; the Philomath College, at Philomath; 
the Corvallis College, at Corvallis; the Umpqua Col¬ 
lege ; the St. Helen’s Hall College, at Portland ; the 
Oakland Academy and St. John’s High School, at 
Eugene City ; the Albany Collegiate Institute, at Al¬ 
bany ; the St. Mary’s Academy and Jacksonville Ac¬ 
ademy, at Jacksonville, and the Roseburgh Academ}^ 
at Wilbur. The State University has not yet been 
established, nor has the Agricultural College been 
organized. 

121. — Oregon was organized as a territory in 1848, 
was divided in 1852, the northern portion being called 
Washington, and the southern Oregon. A state con¬ 
stitution was adopted in 1857, and it was admitted into 
the Union in 1859. The Governor, Secretary of State, 
Treasurer and State Printer, are elected for four years. 
The general election for state and county officers is 
held bienally on the first Monday of June. The legis¬ 
lative assembly consists of a Senate and a House of 
Representatives. The former is composed of sixteen 
Senators, elected for four years; the latter of thirty- 


UNITED STATES. 


298 


four members, elected for two years. Every white 
male citizen of the United States, six months a resi¬ 
dent of the state, may vote. The judicial power is 
vested in a Supreme Court and five Circuit Courts. 
The Supreme Court consists of five justices, who are 
also judges of the District Courts in their respective 
districts. Their term of ofiice is six years. The Su¬ 
preme Court bolds one term annually at the seat of 
government. 

Pennsylvania. 

122. — This state derives its name from a Latin 
term meaning Penn’s Woods. It was first settled by 
the English at Philadelphia, in 1683, and was admitted 
to the Union in 1787. The surface has an area of 
46.000 square miles, and is quite pleasantly diversified 
by mountain, hill and vale. The climate varies accord¬ 
ing to elevation. Iron and coal deposits render Penn¬ 
sylvania one of the richest mining states in the Union. 

123. —Education is liberally supported. The first 
permanent school fund was created in 1831, and there¬ 
with the first foundation laid for the public school sys¬ 
tem. In that year the state had but 93 school dis¬ 
tricts with 451 schools. In 1838, there were 840 dis¬ 
tricts with 6.269 schools. In 1857, the law for the 
establishment of twelve normal schools was passed. 

124. — Of the thirty universities and colleges in the 
state, the following are the most prominent: The Uni¬ 
versity of Pennsylvania, founded in 1755, and located 
at PhildelphiaDickinson College (Methodistl, at Car¬ 
lisle; Washington and Jefferson College, at Washing¬ 
ton : the Moravian College, at Bethlehem; Alleghany 
College, atMeadville: the Western University, at Pitts¬ 
burg; La Fayette College (Presbyterian), at Easton; 
Lehigh University, at South Bethlehem; Pennsylva¬ 
nia College, at Gettysburg; Haverford College (Qua¬ 
ker), at West Haverford; the Augustinian College of 
Villa Nova (Eoman Catholic), in Delaware county ; 
Lewisburg University, at Lewisburg; St. Vincent’s 
College (Roman Catholic), in Westmoreland county; 



204 COUNTEIES OF NOETH AMEEICA. 

Muhlenburg College (Lutheran), at Allentown, and 
Franklin Marshall College, at Lancaster. 

125. — According to the census of 1870, the six 
universities of Pennsylvania had 127 teachers, of whom 
17 were females, and 1,391 male and 170 female stu¬ 
dents. There were six medical, two dental, eleven theo¬ 
logical, one agricultural and eight commercial schools 
in the state. 

126. — The territory embraced within the present 
limits of Pennsylvania was granted by Charles II to 
William Penn, and was settled by English Quakers 
under his direction in 1681. The State Constitution 
was adopted in 1776, and has since been amended in 
1838, 1850, 1857, and 1871. In December, 1873, a 
new constitution, to take effect January 1, 1874, ex¬ 
cept in certain specified instances, was submitted to the 
people and ratified by nearly 150,000 majority. Under 
its provisions, the executive department consists of a 
Governor, elected for four years; a Lieutenant Gov¬ 
ernor, elected for the same time; a Secretary of the 
Commonweath, an Attorney General and Superinten¬ 
dent of Public Instruction, the two first nominated by 
the Governor, and confirmed by the Senate during 
pleasure, the latter for a term of four years; a Secre¬ 
tary of Internal Affairs, elected for four years ; an Au¬ 
ditor General, elected for three years, and a State 
Treasurer, elected for two years. 

127. — The legislative power is vested in a General 
Assembly, consisting of a Senate and House of Eep- 
resentatives. Senators are elected for a term of four 
years, and Eepresentatives for two years. The num¬ 
ber of Senators is fifty. The members of the House of 
Eepresentatives are apportioned among the counties 
on a ratio obtained by dividing the population of the 
state by two hundred. 

128. — Any male citizen twenty-one years of age, 
who shall have been a citizen of the United States for 
one month, who shall have resided in the state on 3 
year (or six months, if a former elector therein). 


UNITED STATES. 295 

and in his election district two months, is entitled to 
vote. 

129 . — The judicial power of the state is vested in 
a Supreme Court, composed of seven judges, elected 
for a term of twenty-one years; in Courts of Common 
Pleas, which shall have one judge for every district of 
40,000 inhabitants, and who is to be elected for ten 
years; in Courts of Oyer and Terminer, General Jail 
Delivery, Quarter Sessions and Orphans’ Courts, which 
are to be presided over by the Judge of the Common 
Pleas Court in the same district. 

Ithode Island. 

130 . — The State was first settled at Providence 
by the English in 1636, and in 1790 it was admitted 
to the Union. The surface has an area of only 1,306 
square miles, and is hilly and broken, but includes 
no mountains. The temperature is similar to that of 
Massachusetts. 

131 . — Education is ably encouraged. A State 
Normal School was established in 1871 at Provi¬ 
dence. The foremost of the higher educational in¬ 
stitutions is Brown University (Baptist), which was 
founded in 1754 at Providence, and had, in 1873, 
204 students and thirteen instructors ; Lapham Insti¬ 
tute, a school of the Free Will Baptists, is at Scituate; 
the Friends’ School and the Providence Conference 
Seminary (Methodist) are at Providence. 

132 . — The Constitution of Khode Island was 
framed in 1842, and amended in 1854 and 1864. 
According to it every male citizen of the United 
States, of the age of twenty-one years, who has had 
his residence and home in the state for one year, and 
in the town and city in which he may claim the right 
to vote, six months next preceding the time of voting, 
and who is possessed of real estate in such town or 
city of the value of $134 above all incumbrances, or 
which shall rent for $7 per annum over any rent re¬ 
served, has the right to vote. 

133 ^ — The executive power is vested in the Gov- 




296 COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

ernor, who, together with the Lieutenant Governor, is 
annually elected by the people. The General As¬ 
sembly consists of a Senate (one Senator from each 
town or city), and a House of Kepresentatives of 
seventy-two members. The Governor, Lieutenant 
Governor, Senators, Kepresentatives, Secretary of State, 
Attorney General and General Treasurer, are elected 
annually on the first Wednesday of April. The 
judicial power of the state is vested in one Supreme 
Court, the judges of which are elected by the two 
Houses in Grand Committee and such inferior courts 
as the General Assembly may from time to time 
-establish. 

South Carolina, 

134. — This State derives its name in honor of 
Charles II. It was first settled in 1670 by the Eng¬ 
lish at Ashley Kiver, and was admitted as a state in 
1788. The surface has an area of 29,385 square 
miles, and is gently undulating, except the north¬ 
western corner, which is hilly or mountainous. 

135. — Gold and other minerals of great value are 
found. The foremost of the higher educational insti¬ 
tutions is the University of South Carolina, which 
was founded in 1801, and attended in 1872 by 
eighty-eight students. The establishment of a State 
Normal School is provided for by the new constitu¬ 
tion, but up to 1870 there existed only a “ Normal 
Class ” in the Avery Institute at Charleston. Other 
higher schools are the College of Charleston ; the 
Furman University (Baptist), at Greenville; the Claflin 
University (Methodist), at Orangeburgh; the Woffard 
College (Methodist), at Spartanburgh ; the Newberry 
College (Lutheran), at Walhalla; the Theological 
Seminary (Presbyterian), and the Lutheran Theologi¬ 
cal Seminary, both at Columbia, and the Southern 
Baptist Theological Seminary, at Greenville. 

136. —The government is similar to that of the 
other reconstructed states. The present constitution 
was framed by a convention, sitting from January 14 


UNITED STATES. 


297 


to ^larcli 17, 1868, and was ratified by the people in 
April. It provides that every male citizen of the 
United States, of the age of twenty-one years and 
over, who was a resident of the state at the time of 
the adoption of the constitution, or who hereafter has 
resided in the state one year, and in the county in 
'which he offers to vote sixty days next preceding an 
election, is entitled to vote. 

1 » 17 . — The legislative power is vested in two dis¬ 
tinct branches, the Senate and House of Eepresen- 
tatives, and both t(')gether are styled the “General 
Assembly of the State of South Carolina.” The 
House of Representatives is composed of 124 mem¬ 
bers, chosen by ballot every second year by the 
citizens of the state. The Senate is composed of one 
member for each county. The county of Charleston 
is represented by two senators. The chief executive 
authority is vested in a Governor, who is elected for 
two years. The qualified voters of the state elect 
also a Comptroller General and Treasurer and a Sec¬ 
retary of S-tate, who hold their offices for four years. 

138 . — The judicial power is vested in a Supreme 
Court, in two Circuit Courts, viz. : a Court of Com¬ 
mon Pleas, having civil jurisdiction, and a Court of 
General Sessions, with criminal jurisdiction only: in 
Probate Courts and in Justices of the Peace. The 
Supreme Court consists of a Chief Justice and two 
Associate Justices, any two of whom constitute a 
quorum. It has appellate jurisdiction only in cases 
of chancery, and constitutes a court for the Correction 
of Errors of Law. It is held once in each year at 
the seat of government, and at such other places as 
the General Assembly may direct. 

Tennessee. 

139 . — This State takes its name from an Indian 
term meaning “ River with the Great Bend.” It was 
first settled by the English at Fort London in 1757, 
and was.admitted to the Union in 1796. The surface 
has an area of 45,600 square miles, and is diversified 



298 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

by mountain chains, table lands, valleys and plains. 
The climate is not subject to great extremes of either 
heat or cold. 

140 . _Coal and iron are the most valuable min¬ 
erals of the state. The coal is of a high quality, and 
is almost inexhaustible. The soil is, in many large 
portions of the state, very good. 

141. —Until within the last year or two, education 
had made but little progress in this state; but it is 
now rapidly gaining. The principal higher institu¬ 
tions of education are the University of Nashville, 
organized in 1806 and having 270 students in 1871; 
the East Tennessee University, at Knoxville, organ¬ 
ized in 1807 ; the Central Tennessee College, at Nash¬ 
ville, organized in 1866, and having, in 1871, 226 
students; the Lookout Mountain Institution, organ¬ 
ized in 1866; the Fisk University, at Nashville, for 
colored students, organized in 1867, and the East Ten¬ 
nessee Wesleyan University, at Athens, organized in 
1867. 

142 . — The territory embraced within the limits of 
the state originally formed a part of North Carolina, 
but was ceded to the United States in 1784. A con¬ 
stitution was adopted in 1796, and in June the same 
year the state was admitted into the Union. By an 
act passed November 15, 1869, a convention was di¬ 
rected to be called for revising the constitution. It 
was duly elected, met at Nashville in January, 1870, 
and completed its labors in Februar}^ The new con¬ 
stitution then framed was ratified by a popular vote in 
March, 1870, and is now in force. 

143 . — Every male person of the age of twenty-one 
vears, being a citizen of the United States and a resi¬ 
dent of the state for twelve months, and in the county 
wherein he may offer his vote for six months next 
preceding an election, shall be entitled to vote for 
members of the general assembly aud other civil ofii- 
cers for the county or district in which he resides. 

144 . — The supreme executive power is vested in 


UNITED STATES. 


299 


a Governor, who is chosen by the electors of the 
members of the general assembly for a term of two 
years. He must be at least thirty years of age, and 
must have been a citizen of the state for seven years 
, next before his election, xi Secretary of State is ap¬ 
pointed by joint vote of the general assembly for four 
years; a Treasurer and a Comptroller of the Treasury 
are appointed in the same manner for a term of two 
years.^ The Governor appoints his Adjutant General 
and his other staff officers. 

— ^i'he legislative authority is vested in a gen¬ 
eral assembly, which consists of a Senate and House of 
liepresentatives, who hold their offices for two years 
from the day of the general election. No person shall 
be a representative unless he shall be a citizen of the 
Lnited States, of the age of twenty-one years, and 
shall have been a citizen of the state for three years 
and a resident of the county he represents one year 
immediately preceding the election ; and no person 
shall be a senator unless he shall be a citizen of the 
United States, of the age of thirty years, and shall 
have resided three years in the state and one year in 
the county or district immediately preceding the elec¬ 
tion. 

146 . — The judicial power is vested in one Supreme 
Court, Circuit Courts, Chancery Courts and Justices of 
the Peace. The Supreme Court consists of five 
judges, who designate one of their own number to 
preside as Chief Justice. The concurrence of three 
judges is necessary to a decision. The jurisdiction of 
the court is appellate only. Its sessions are held at 
Knoxville, Nashville and Jackson. The judges are 
elected by the legal voters for terms of eight years. 
The judges of the Circuit and Chancery courts are 
also elected for eight years. The Attorney General 
and Keporter for the State are appointed by the Judges 
of the Supreme Court for eight years. 

, Texas. 

147 . — This state has an area of 237,321 square 


800 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


miles. The surface is diversified. The climate is very 
warm, but free from extremes. The state is rich in 
minerals, but they are, as yet but slightly developed. 
Agriculture and manufacturing have made considera¬ 
ble progress. 

148 . — Education is now progressing on a solid 
foundation. “ Texas was admitted as a state into the 
Union in 1845, and passed an ordinance of secession 
on February 5, 1861. After the close of the war a 
provisional governor took charge of the executive de¬ 
partment in 1865, and called a state convention* which 
assembled at Austin in February, 1866. Under the 
reconstruction acts of Congress of 1867, Texas was 
included in the fifth military division. The state con¬ 
stitutional convention having reassembled in Decern- 
ber, 1868, completed its labors, and the new constitu- 
tution was ratified by a vote of the people at the 
election held in November, 1869. In March, 1870, 
Congress admitted Texas to representation upon the 
conditions that no citizen or class of citizens should 
ever be deprived of the right to vote except as pun¬ 
ishment for crimes, and that no citizen or class of citi¬ 
zens should be deprived of the school rights and 
privileges secured by the constitution of the state.” 

149 . — Every male citizen of the United States, of 
the age of twenty-one 3 ’ears and upward, without dis¬ 
tinction of race, color or former condition of servitude, 
who shall have resided in the state for one year, and 
in the coutjty in which he offers to vote sixty days 
next preceding any election, is entitled to vote. 

150. — The legislative power of the state is vested 
in two branches; the one styled the Senate and'the 
other the House of Representatives, and both together 
the Legislature of the State of Texas. The members 
of the House of Representatives, ninety in number, are 
chosen for a term of two years, and must have resided 
in the state two years, and in the county or town from 
which they are chosen one year next preceding their 
election. The senators, thirty in number, are chosen 


UNITED STATES. 


801 


for six years. Those elected at the first election were 
divided by lot into three classes. The seats of the 
senators of the first class were vacated at the expira¬ 
tion of the first two years; those of the second class 
at the expiration of four years; and those of the third 
class at the expiration of six years, so that one-third 
thereof is chosen biennially. No person can be sena¬ 
tor unless he be a citizen of the United States and a 
citizen of the state three years next preceding the 
election, and the last year thereof a resident of the 
district for which he is chosen, and have attained the 
age of. twenty-five years. 

151. — The executive department consists of a 
Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of State, 
Comptroller of Public Accounts, Treasurer, Commis¬ 
sioner of the General Land Office, Attorney General 
and Superintendent of Public Instruction. The Gov¬ 
ernor and Lieutenant Governor are elected for four 
years. They must be thirty years of age, citizens of 
the United States, and must have been residents and 
citizens of the statfe for three years immediately pre¬ 
ceding their election. The Secretary of State and the 
Attorney General are appointed by the Governor, by 
and with the consent of the Senate, and continue in 
office during the term of service of the Governor elect. 
The Treasurer of the sffite and the Commissioner of 
the General Land Office are elected at the same time 
of the election of the Governor, having the same quaL 
ideations as the Governor. 

152. — “ The judicial power of the state is vested 
in one Supreme Court, in District Courts and such in¬ 
ferior courts and magistrates as may be created by the 
Constitution or by the Legislature under its authority. 
The Supreme Court consists of three Judges, any two 
of whom constitute a quorum. They are appointed 
by the Governor, by and with the advice and consent 
of the Senate, for a term of nine years. The term of 
one of the judges expires every three years. The 
The Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction only. 



302 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

In criminal cases no appeal is allowed to the Supreme 
Court, unless some judge thereof, upon inspecting a 
transcript of the record, believes that some error of law 
has been committed by the judge before whom the 
case is tried. The Supreme Court holds its sessions 
annually at the capital of the state. The state is di¬ 
vided into judicial districts, for each of which one 
judge is appointed by the Governor, by and with the 
consent of the Senate, for a term of eight years. The 
District Court has original jurisdiction of all criminal 
cases, of all causes in behalf of the state to recover 
penalties, forfeitures and escheats ; of all cases of di¬ 
vorce ; of all suits to recover damages for slander ; of 
all suits for the trial of title to land; of all suits, when 
the matter in controversy amounts to $100. The Dis¬ 
trict* court has appellate jurisdiction in cases originat¬ 
ing in inferior courts, and original and exclusive juris¬ 
diction for the probate of wills; for the appointment 
of guardians ; for the granting of letters of administra¬ 
tion ; for the settling of accounts of executors, admin¬ 
istrators and guardians; and for the transaction of all 
business appertaining to the estate of deceased persons, 
minors, idiots and lunatics. Justices of the Peace have 
such criminal and civil jurisdiction as is provided by 
law. Each county is divided into five justices’ pre¬ 
cincts.” 

Vermont. 

153. — This State takes its name from a French 
term meaning Green Mountain. Itwms first settled in 
1724 at Fort Drummond, by the English. The sur¬ 
face contains an area of 10,212 square miles, and is 
broken by the Green Mountains. The climate is cold 
and marked by great extremes. Iron ore is abund¬ 
ant, and other less valuable minerals. Agriculture is 
the principal industry. 

154. — The public schools are well supported and 
are, in most of the villages, well graded. Three Nor¬ 
mal schools have been established. The University of 
Vermont is located at Burlington, and the State Agri- 


UNITED STATES. 


803 


cultural College has been incorporated with it. There 
are two other colleges and several academies in the 
state. 

155 . — Jurisdiction over the territory within the 
present limits of Vermont was claimed by Massachu- 
setts, New Hampshire and New York. In January, 
1771, a convention met at Westminster declaring the 
state an independent jurisdiction, to be forever known 
as “ New Connecticut,” alias “Vermont.” The same 
convention met again in Jul}^, and appointed a com¬ 
mittee .to frame a constitution. The legislature, in 
February, 1779, passed an act declaring that the con¬ 
stitution, as established by general convention at 
Windsor in 1777, together with such alterations 
and additions as should be made in pursuance of 
its provisions, should be forever held and maintain¬ 
ed as part of the laws of the state. After the con¬ 
troversy with New York was amicably settled, the 
legislature of Vermont, called a convention to as¬ 
certain the wishes of the people with regard to admis¬ 
sion into the Union. The convention met, and in Jan¬ 
uary, 1791, resolved to make application. An act was 
according!}?- passed, to take effect March 4, 1791, by 
which Vermont was admitted with the rights and priv¬ 
ileges of an independent state, and by another act, 
approved in March, 1791, the laws of the United 
States were extended over Vermont. There have been 
held under the constitution of the state, thirteen 
“Councils of Censors,” at intervals of seven years, to 
propose changes to the constitution, and the changes 
thus proposed were adopted by the convention called 
by them. The first Council of Censors met in 1785, 
the thirteenth in 1869. 

156 . — Every man of twenty-one years of age, who 
is a native born citizen of some one of the United 
States, or has been naturalized and has resided in the 
state one year next before the time of election, and 
who will take the oath prescribed by the constitution, 
is entitled to the privileges of a freeman. 





304 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


157 . —The supreme executive power of the state 
is exercised by the Governor, or, in case of his absence, 
by the Lieutenant Governor. They are elected by 
ballot, hold their offices for two years, and must have 
resided in the state four years next preceding the day 
of election. The Treasurer is elected in the same 
manner and for the same time. The Secretary of 
State, the Auditor, and all other officers whose elec¬ 
tion is not otherwise provided for, are elected hy the 
Senate and the House of Eepresentatives in joint as¬ 
sembly. 

158 . — The supreme legislative power of the state 
is exercised by the Senate and the House of Kepre- 
sentatives, which are styled the “ General Assembly of 
the State of Vermont.” The Senate is composed of 
thirty members who have attained the age of thirty 
years, and the House is composed of 241 members. 
Senators and representatives are elected biennially for 
two years. 

159 . —The judicial powers of the state are vested 
in a Supreme Court, a Court of Chancery, a County 
Court in each county. Justices of the Peace in the sev¬ 
eral towns, and a Probate Court in each probate district. 
The judges of the Supreme Court are elected biennially 
by the Legislature, and all other judicial officers by the 
people. Since 1870, the number of judges of the 
Supreme Court is seven. This court has no origi¬ 
nal jurisdiction, but is a court of errors. It holds an¬ 
nually a general term and also a term in each county. 
Each judge of the same is a chancellor, and holds his 
■court at the same time as the County Court. The 
County Courts have original jurisdiction in divorce, in 
all civil actions for over $2C0 and in relation to real 
estate. Two terms of the County Court are held in 
each county, annually, over which one of the judges 
of the Supreme Court presides, assisted by the two 
eounty judges. All actions out of the original juris¬ 
diction of the County and Chancery Courts, except 
for divorce, must be brought’before a Justice of the 
Peace. 


UNITED STATES. 


305 


Vi rginia. 

160 . — This state takes its name in honor of Eliza¬ 
beth the Virgin Queen. It was first settled in 1607, 
at Jamestown, by the English, and was admitted to 
the Union in 1788. The surface has an area of 
38,852 square miles, and is diversified by hill and vale. 
The climate, upon the whole, is mild and salubrious. 
The state is rich in minerals. Gold is found, and iron 
ore is obtained in large quantities. Copper ores also 
promise to afford profitable investment. Other min¬ 
erals of less importance enrich the geological forma¬ 
tion. 

161 . —Until recently, the state has had no system 
of free public schools. In March, 1870, the first State 
Superintendent of Public Instruction was appointed, 
and the new school bill became a law in July the 
same year. Before the end of the first scholastic year, 
1871, the number of schools had increased to 2,900, 
with about 130,469 pupils and 3,000 teachers. There 
is now every prospect that Virginia will steadily pro¬ 
gress on the road begun, and at no distant day will 
offer to her growing population a system of thorough 
instruction. 

162 . —Before 1860, the state had twenty-three col¬ 
leges, with 2,824 students, which were mostly closed 
during the war, a part of the buildings being burned 
and others used as hospitals or barracks. The college 
of William and Mary, at Williamsburgh, was char¬ 
tered in 1693. The buildings were destroyed during 
the war; but in the fall of 1865, the college was re¬ 
opened, and in 1871 it had twelve professors and 
seventy-six students. Washington and Lee Universi¬ 
ty, at Lexington, was founded in 1782, and had, in 
1871, twenty-two professors and 305 students. The 
University of Virginia, in Albemarle county, founded 
in 1825, was a flourishing institution in 1860, when it 
had 600 students. This number had diminished to 
less than fifty in 1863, but in 1871 it had 317 students 
and nineteen teachers. Provision has been made by 

20 



806 COUNTEIES OF NORTH AMERICA. ’ 

the Legislature for the admission of one student from 
each senatorial district, without payment of fees and 
rents. 

163 . — The state formed a constitution in July, 
1776, and ratified the United States constitution in 
June, 1788. In 1861, the state of AYest ALrginia was 
formed and set off from the old commonwealth. A 
new state government was instituted in 1863, at Alex¬ 
andria. A convention, which met in February, 1864, 
abolished slavery. In May, 1865, a provisional Gov¬ 
ernor was appointed by the President of the United 
States. In December, 1868, a convention met at 
Eichmond and framed a constitution which was adopt¬ 
ed in July, 1869. The state was admitted to repre¬ 
sentation in Congress January 26, 1870. 

164 . — Every male citizen of the United States, 
twenty-one years of age, who shall have been a resi¬ 
dent of the state for twelve months and of the county, 
city or town in which he shall offer to vote, three 
months next preceding any election, shall be entitled to 
vote. 

165 . — The chief executive power of the common¬ 
wealth is vested in a Governor, who holds the office 
for the term of four years, to commence on the first 
day of January next succeeding his election. The 
Governor is elected by the voters of the state at the 
times and places of choosing members of the General 
Assembly; must be a citizen of the United States, 
and if of foreign birth, must have been a citizen of 
the United States for ten years next preceding his 
election. He must have attained the age of thirty 
years, and must have resided in the state three years 
next preceding his election. A Lieutenant Governor 
is elected at the same time and for the same term as 
the Governor, and his qualification and the manner of 
his election must be the same. The Secretary of the 
Commonwealth, Treasurer and Auditor of Public Ac¬ 
counts are elected by the joint vote of the two houses 
of the General Assembly, and continue in office for 


UNITED STATES. 


807 


the term of two years. There is a Board of Public 
Works, consisting of the Governor, Auditor and 
Treasurer. 

1^6. — “The legislative power is vested in the 
General Assembly, which consists of a Senate and 
House of Delegates. The House of Delegates is 
elected biennially by the voters of the several cities 
and counties, and consists of 138 members. The Sen¬ 
ate is elected for the term of four years, and consists 
of 43 senators, representing the 40 districts into which 
the state is divided. The General Assembly meets 
annually, and no session continues longer than 90 
days without the concurrence of three-fifths of the 
members elected to each House, in which case the 
session may be extended for not more than 30 days 
longer. 

107 . — “The judicial power is vested in a Supreme 
Court of Appeals, Circuit Courts and County Courts. 
The Court of Appeals consists of five judges, any 
three of whom may hold a court. It has appellate 
jurisdiction only, except in cases of habeas corpus, 
mandamus and prohibition. It has no jurisdiction in 
civil cases where the matter in controversy is less than 
$500, except in controversies concerning the title and 
boundaries of land, etc. The judges are chosen by 
the joint vote of the two houses of the General Assem¬ 
bly, and hold their office for a term of twelve years. 
The state is divided into sixteen judicial circuits, for 
each of which a judge is chosen by the joint vote of 
the two houses of the General Assembly for a term of 
eight years. A Circuit Court is held at least twice a 
year by the judges of each circuit in every county and 
corporation thereof. In each county of the common¬ 
wealth there is a County Court, which is held monthly 
by a judge learned in the law of the state, and chosen 
for a term of six years. In each city or town contain¬ 
ing a population of 5,000, there is elected by the joint 
vote of the two houses of the General Assembly, one 
City Judge, who holds a Corporation or Hustings 
Court of said city or town.” 





COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


-SOS 


West Virginia. 

168 * —-The surface is mostly mountainous. The 
"climate is mild. In pursuance of a requirement of 
the new constitution, a system of public schools has 
been adopted which is making good progress. 

169 . — The three normal schools (at Huntington, 
Fairmount and West Liberty) are in successful opera¬ 
tion. The normal school at Huntington, called “ Mar- 

• shall College,” was attended in 1872 by 195 pupils, 
78 female and 117 male. The West Virginia Univer- 

• sity, at Morgantown, was organized in 1867, and is 
doing good work. A military department is connected 

''With it. 

170 . — West Virginia “ formed a part of the com- 
imonwealth of Virginia until the latter seceded from 
•the Union. In June, 1861, delegates from thirty-nine 
'Counties assembled at AVheeling to protest against the 
act of secession, and to organize a provisional govern¬ 
ment. Another convention met in August, 1861, and 
passed an ordinance providing for an election to be 
held in October to decide upon the question of organ¬ 
izing a new state to be called the “ State of Kanawha,” 
embracing thirty-nine of the western counties of Vir¬ 
ginia. The constitution of the new state was ratified 
by the people in May, 1862. Congress passed an act, 
admitting the state on condition of the adoption of 
certain amendments to the constitution. These 
changes were made and ratified by the people, and on 
April 20, 1863, the President of United States de¬ 
clared, by proclamation, that the new constitution 
should take effect in sixty days from that date. In 
March, 1866, the counties of Jefferson and Berkeley 
were recognized by Congress as annexed to the state 
of West Virginia. Another convention was held, and 
the new constitution agreed upon in April, 1872, was 
ratified in August. 

171. — “ The male citizens of the state are entitled 
to vote at all elections held within the counties in 
which they reside, except persons who have not re- 


UNITED STATES. 


309 


sided in the state for one year, and in the county in 
which they offer to vote, for sixty days, next preced¬ 
ing an election. The legislative power is vested in a 

Senate and House of Delegates, which are styled 
■^‘the Legislature of West Virginia.” The Senate is 
composed of twenty-four members, one-half of whom 
are elected biennially for the term of four years. The 
House is composed of sixt 3 ^-five delegates, who are 
elected for two ^^ears. 

172. — “The executive department consists of a 
Governor, Secretary of State, State Superintendent of 
Free Schools, Auditor, Treasurer and Attorney Gen¬ 
eral. who is ex-Officio Eeporter of the Court of Ap¬ 
peals. These officers are elected by the legal voters 
of the state for a term of four 3 ’ears, commencing on 
^farch 4th next after their election. 

173. '—“The judicial power is vested in a Supreme 
Court of Appeals and in Circuit Courts and the judges 
thereof; in County and Corporation Courts and in Jus¬ 
tices of the Peace. The Supreme Court is composed 
of four judges, who are elected by the voters of the 
state for the term of twelve years. It has original 
jurisdiction in cases of habeas corpus, mandamus and 
j)rohibition, and appellate jurisdiction in civil cases 
where the matter in controvery exceeds $100 in value, 
exclusive of costs; in controversies concerning the 
title or boundaries of land, probate of wills, the ap¬ 
pointment or qualification of a personal representative, 
guardian, committee or curator, or concerning a mill, 
roadway, ferry or landing, or the right of a corpora¬ 
tion or county to levy taxes. It has appellate juris¬ 
diction in criminal cases where there has been a con¬ 
viction for felon 3 " or misdemeanor in a circuit court, 
and where a conviction has been had in any inferior 
court and been affirmed in a circuit court. The state 
is divided into nine circuits, for each of which a judge 
is elected by the voters thereof, who holds his office 
for a term of eight years. A circuit court is held in 
every county twice a year. The circuit courts have the 





810 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


supervision of all proceedings before the county courts 
and other inferior tribunals, and with certain excep¬ 
tions have original and general jurisdiction of all mat¬ 
ters at law where the amount in controversy exceeds 
$50. They have appellate jurisdiction in all cases of 
judgments, decrees and final orders rendered by the 
county courts where the matter in controversy ex¬ 
ceeds $20 in value. 

174 . — “In each county there is a county court, 
which is composed of a president and two justices of 
the peace. It holds six sessions during the year. The 
president is elected by the voters of the county for 
four years. Each county is laid off into districts not 
less than three nor more than ten in number, in each 
of which one or two justices of the peace are elected 
by the voters thereof for four years.” 

Wisconsin. 

175. — This state takes its name from an Indian 
term meaning Grathering of the Waters. It was first 
settled at Green Bay, by the French, in 1745, and was 
admitted to the Union in 1848. The surface has an 
area of 58,924 square miles, and is pleasantly diversi¬ 
fied. The climate is quite severe and subject to sud¬ 
den changes, but healthy. 

17fi.—The state has made very liberal provisions 
for all classes of educational institutions. The public 
schools are under the supervision of a State Superin¬ 
tendent of Public Instruction, and county and city 
superintendents. The state has four Normal Schools, 
one at Platteville, one at Oshkosh, one at Whitewater 
and one at Eiver Falls. The State University, at 
Madison, is in a prosperous condition, and had, in 1870, 
twenty-seven professors and 462 students, of whom 124 
were females. It embraces a college of letters, a col¬ 
lege of arts, a preparatory department and a female de¬ 
partment. The college of arts is the agricultural and 
scientific college of the state. The other institutions 
for higher and professional education embrace twelve 
colleges, five academies, one law school and three theo¬ 
logical schools. 


UNITED STATES. 


811 


177. — Originally, Wisconsin formed part of the 
Territory of the Northwest. “ Every male person of 
the age of twenty-one years and upward, belonging to 
either of the following classes, who shall have resided 
in the state for one year next preceding any election, 
shall be deemed a qualified voter at such election: 1. 
Citizens of the United States. 2. Persons of foreign 
birth, who shall have declared their intention to be¬ 
come citizens of the United States. 8. Persons of 
Indian blood, who have once been declared by law of 
Congress to be citizens of the United States; and 4. 
Civilized persons of Indian descent, not members of 
any tribe. The legislative power is vested in a Sen¬ 
ate and Assembly. The Assembly, according to the 
constitution, shall never be less than fifty-four nor 
more than one hundred, and the Senate shall consist 
of a number not more than one-third nor less than 
one-fourth of the number of members of the Assem¬ 
bly. The members of the Assembly are chosen 
annually for one year, and the Senators annually 
for two years. The executive power is vested in a 
Governor, who holds his office for two years. A 
Lieutenant Governor is chosen at the same time and 
for the same term. There are further chosen at the 
time and places of choosing the members of the 
legislature, a Secretary of State, Treasurer, and an 
Attorney General and State Superintendent, who hold 
their offices for the term of two years. The judicial 
power is vested in a Supreme Court, Circuit Courts, 
Courts of Probate and Justices of the Peace. The 
Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction only; but in 
no case removed to the Supreme Court shall a trial by 
jury be allowed. It has a general superintending con¬ 
trol over all inferior courts, and has power to issue 
writs of habeas corpus, mandamus, injunction, quo 
warranto, certiorari and other original and remedial 
writs. It holds at least one term annually at the seat 
of government. The state is divided into twelve ju¬ 
dicial circuits, for each of which a judge is chosen by 




812 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


the qualified electors therein. The Circuit Courts 
have original jurisdiction in all matters, civil and 
criminal, and appellate jurisdiction from all inferior 
courts and tribuals, and a supervisory control over the 
same. A Circuit Court is held at least twice in each 
year in each county of the state organized for judicial 
purposes. There is chosen in each county by the 
qualified electors thereof a Judge of Probate, who 
holds his office for two years; and the electors of the 
several towns elect Justices of the Peace, whose term 
of office is also two years.” * 

XIV. SKETCHES OF TERRITORIES. 

1 . — Alaska is a peninsula, occupying the extreme 
northwestern portion of the North American continent. 
Its surface has an area of 577,390 square miles, and is 
broken and mountainous. “It is traversed by the 
most northern range of the Rocky Mountains’ and a 
large number of smaller chains intersect it in all direc¬ 
tions. Most of the mountains do not rise above three 
thousand feet in height, but several greatly exceed 
this. Mount Fairweather rises to 14,768 feet in height, 
and the volcanoes. Mount St. Elias, 14,968 feet, and 
Illarnano, 12,066 feet, rank among the loftiest peaks of 
the continent. But little of the country offers land 
suitable for agriculture, the greater part being rocky 
and sterile, or else swampy.” The principal river is 
the Yukon or Kwitchpak. 

2. — The climate is materially modified by a warm 
ocean current which flows along the southern coast. 
“ At Sitka the thermometer rarely falls below zero, the 
mean temperature being about 44° Fahrenheit. The 
warm and moist sea air meeting with a cold current 
from the mountains, causes frequent fogs and rains 
along the southern coast. The average rainfall is be¬ 
tween 80 and 90 inches annually, the months of Sep¬ 
tember and October being especially wet. It is said 

*From “ Ceutennhil Gazetteer,” by A. Von Steinwehr. 


UNITED STATES. 


813 


that about 250 clays in the year are cloudy and rainy. 
In the northern part of the peninsula this influence is 
not felt, but as this portion lies within the Arctic cir¬ 
cle, the climate is intensely cold, and the brief summer 
does not suffice to thaw the frozen soil.” 

3. — A heavy growth of timber covers the soil on 
the southern seaboard, lofty trees clothing the moun¬ 
tains to a height of 2,500 or 3,000 feet. The forests 
consist of Sitka spruce, yellow cedar, fir, hemlock, 
larch, and kindred species. In the more northern dis¬ 
tricts the soil is barren. Owing to the constant moist¬ 
ure the cereals do not ripen, the potatoes are small and 
water}^, and garden vegetables yield but moderately. 
Cranberries and salmon berries grow wild. 

4 . — The wealth of Alaska is in its furs and fish¬ 
eries. The latter include cod and mackerel, the former 
in great abundance. Seals, bears, deer, wolves, and 
other wild animals are numerous on the shores and in 
the interior. The seals afford a profitable source of 
revenue in their oil and skins, but the land animals are 
little hunted by the whites, owing to the impassable 
nature of the soil. 

5. — The population of Alaska are principally na¬ 
tives. The Indians include Esquimaux along the north¬ 
ern shore, and the Kolusch and Kenai along the 
southern. The white inhabitants, exclusive of the 
military, numbered, in 1870, 461 souls. They are 
principally engaged in the fisheries and fur trade. 
The natives are without ambition, and have been con¬ 
taminated by the intemperate and depraved habits of 
many of the white residents. Sitka, on the island of 
New Archangel, is the principal settlement. 

6 . — Alaska was discovered by the navigator, Vitus 
Behring, in 1741, from whom are named Behring 
Straits and Behring Sea. He took possession of it for 
the Kussian government, in whose employ he was at 
the time. In 1778, Capt. Cook sailed along the west¬ 
ern coast as far north as Icy Cape, in latitude 70° 20' 
N. In the year 1799, the region was granted to the 




814 


COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


Eussian-American Trading Company, who established 
posts at Sitka and elsewhere. Propositions for its sale 
to the United States were made in 1866, and the pur¬ 
chase was effected the following year, for $7,200,000 in 
gold. The United States government took formal pos¬ 
session in October, 1867, since which date it has been 
under the charge of the United States military author¬ 
ities stationed at Sitka. 

Arizona. 

7. —This Territory of the United States lies west 
of New Mexico. The territory was organized Febru¬ 
ary 24, 1863, and the executive branch consists of a 
Governor, Secretary of State, a Treasurer and Eeceiv- 
er-General and an Auditor. The judicial power is 
vested in a Supreme Court and Probate Courts. The 
Chief Justice and the two Associate Judges composing 
the Supreme Court are appointed by the President. 
This court holds one session annually at Tucson, com¬ 
mencing the fourth Monday of October. 

Dahota. 

8 . — This Territory lies west of Minnesota and Iowa. 
The Governor and Secretary are appointed by the 
President. The Auditor, Treasurer and Superintend¬ 
ent of Public Instruction are chosen by the qualified 
electors. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme 
Court, District Courts and Probate Courts. The Su¬ 
preme court is composed of one Chief Justice and two 
Associate Justices. 

District of Columbia. 

— III 1790, Maryland and Virginia ceded a square 
tract of land ten miles long and wide to the United 
States, as a site for the national capital. This tract 
was named the District of Columbia. In 1846 that 
part of the district which lies south of the Potomac 
Kiver was retroceded to Virginia, and since then the 
northern or Maryland portion forms the national dis¬ 
trict, including the capital of the country (the city of 
Washington), and also the city of Georgetown. 


UNITED STATES. 


315 


10 . —An act of Congress, approved in February, 
1871, provided a territorial government for the District, 
consisting of a Governor and a Council of eleven mem¬ 
bers, appointed by the President for four years, and a 
House of Delegates consisting of twenty two members, 
elected by the people. The judiciary consists of the 
Supreme Court of the District of Columbia, which was 
established in 1863, and is composed of four Justices, 
who are appointed by the President of the United 
States. This court has general jurisdiction in law and 
equity, and appellate jurisdiction in all judgments of 
the Justices of the Peace of the District It holds 
three general terms annually at Washington. ‘Decent¬ 
ly the government of the District has been vested in a 
Board of Commissioners. 

Idaho. 

11 . —This Territory lies east of W^ashington Terri¬ 
tory, and west of Montana and Wyoming Territories. 
The gold fields of this territory are very rich. The 
Governor and Secretary of State are appointed by the 
President for a term of four years; the Treasurer, 
Comptroller and Superintendent of Public Instruction 
are elected by the people. The legislature comprises 
a Council of ten members, chosen for two years, and a 
House of Eepresentatives of 20 members, chosen for 
one year. 

12. —The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Jus¬ 
tice and two Associate Justices, appointed by the Pres¬ 
ident for four years. It holds at least one session an¬ 
nually at the seat of government. The territorj^ is 
divided into three judicial districts, in each of which 
one of the Supreme Court Justices holds a District 
Court session. 

3Iontana, 

13. — This Territory lies west of Dakota and is very 
rich in gold and silver. It is one of the most promis¬ 
ing territories of the Union. 

14. — The government consists of a Governor, Sec¬ 
retary of State, District Attorney, Surveyor-General, 




816 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

Superintendent of Indian Affairs, United States Com¬ 
missioner and a Treasurer. These territorial officers 
are appointed by the President of the United States, 
by and with the consent of the Senate. The Legisla¬ 
ture comprises a Council of 12 members and a House 
of Eepresentatives of 26 members. The United 
States District Court of Montana is composed of one 
District Judge and two Associate Justices. 

Kew Mexico, 

15 . — This Territory lies w’est of Texas and the In¬ 
dian Territory, and is now seeking admission to the 
Union, which will probably be accomplished at an 
early day. The territory is rich in gold and silver. 

16 . —New Mexico was organized as a territory by 
act of Congress, September 9, 1850. The Governor, 
Secretary, Superintendent of Indian Affairs and Pur 
veyor of Public Funds are appointed by the Presi¬ 
dent, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. 
The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Justice and 
two Associate Justices, appointed by the President for 
four years. This court holds one term annually at the 
seat of the territorial government. One of the jus¬ 
tices holds a district court session in each of the three 
districts into which the territory has been divided. 
The Supreme and District Courts have chancery and 
common law jurisdiction. 

Utah, 

17. — This Territory lies west of Colorado. Gold 
is found in paying quantities. Utah, originally a part 
of Upper California, was ceded to the United States 
by treaty with Mexico, in 1848, and erected into a ter¬ 
ritory in September, 1850. It was first settled by the 
Mormons, a peculiar religious sect, calling themselves 
Latter Day Saints, in 1847, after their expulsion from 
Illinois, where they had founded the settlement of 
Nauvoo. The Governor and Secretary are appointed 
by the President of the United States’ for four years. 
The Legislative Assembly is composed of a Council 
and a House of Eepresentatives. The 13 members of 


UNITED STATES. 


317 


the Council are elected for two years and the 26 mem¬ 
bers of the Plouse for one year. 

18. — The judicial power of the territory is vested 
in a Supreme Court, District Courts, Probate Courts 
and Justices of the Peace. The Supreme Court con¬ 
sists of one Chief Justice and two Associate Justices. 
The 'territory is divided into three judicial districts, in 
each of which a regular term of the Supreme Court is 
held every year. 

Washiiiffton. 

19. — This Territory lies west of Idaho territory. 
The territory, formerly a part of Oregon, was’ organ¬ 
ized as a territory in March, 1853. The Governor and 
Secretary are appointed by the President of the United 
States, and the Auditor and Treasurer are chosen un¬ 
der territorial authority. The Legislative Assembly 
consists of a Council and House of Eepresentatives, 
and convenes annually on the first Monday in Decem¬ 
ber. The Council is composed of nine members, 
elected for three years, and the House of Eepresenta¬ 
tives is composed of thirty members, elected for one 
year. The judicial power of the territory is vested in 
a Supreme Court, District Courts and Justices of the 
Peace. The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Jus¬ 
tice and two Associate Justices, who hold their offices 
during a term of four years. One term of the Su¬ 
preme Court is held annually at the seat of govern¬ 
ment. For District Court purposes, the territory is 
divided into three judicial districts, in each of which 
the Justices of the Supreme Court hold the sessions. 
For each of these districts a territorial Prosecuting At¬ 
torney is elected by the people for a term of two 
years. 

Wyoming. 

2(b — This Territory lies southwest of Dakota, and 
like all the other territories of the far west it is rich in 
mineral treasures. The Governor and Secretary are 
appointed by the President of the United States for 
four years. The Legislative Assembly consists of a 



818 COUNTEIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

Council of nine members and a House of Kepresenta- 
tives of thirteen members. 

21 . — The judicial power is vested in a Supreme 
Court, District Courts, Probate Courts and Justices of 
the Peace. The Supreme Court consists of a Chief 
Justice and two Associate Justices, any two of whom 
constitute a quorum, and who hold a term at the seat 
of government annually. They are appointed by the 
President of the United States for four years. The 
territory is divided into three judicial districts, and in 
each of them a district court is held by one of the 
Justices of the Supreme Court. 

XV. THE CONFEDERATE STATES. 

186J to 180,’>. 

1 . — Basis of Action. Strictly speaking, the 
Federal Union of these states is a Confederacy; but 
when the Confederate States are mentioned, the 
Southern Confederacy is understood. Shortly after 
the Constitution had been adopted in the last century, 
there were indications that some of the men who were 
firmest for U nion held views as to state rights, which, 
if carried to their logical results, would have endang¬ 
ered or destroyed the United States. There may 
have been, on the part of some of the men who rati¬ 
fied the Constitution, a reserved thought that the 
Union should endure only as long as certain individul 
ends could be served, but no such right was expressly 
reserved under the Constitution framed in 1787, and 
subsequently ratified by all the states. The aim of 
the framers of the Constitution was to make a strong 
government, because the articles of the Confederation 
had left to the Greneral Government only an advisory 
power, in effect, without executive capacity to enforce 
a decision. That fault could not have been remedied 
by a constitution that would leave to every individual 
state the right to retire at any moment. There would 
have been m the autonomy of the states such powers 
of disintegration, that Union must have been a name 


UNITED STATES. 


319 


■without a meaning, and the Federal compact would 
have had the strength of a rope of sand. 

— Kentucky and Virginia in 1798 and 1799 
adopted resolutions, supposed to have been formu¬ 
lated, the first by Thomas Jefferson, afterwards Presi¬ 
dent, and then Secretary of State in Washington’s 
administration; the second by James Madison, after¬ 
wards President and in the intermediate term Sec¬ 
retary of State in Jefferson’s administration; but the 
resolutions did not go beyond asserting an uncertain 
and ill defined right of nullification ; and neither of the 
statesmen mentioned advocated such action in their 
official characters as the resolutions implied. Such 
resolutions could not be of value as against the con¬ 
stitution already ratified, except in so far as they 
might tend to illustrate the intentions of the parties to 
that compact. 

— JosiAH Quincy of Boston, when opposing the 
Lo uisiana purchase, which he condemned as uncon¬ 
stitutional, said in the House of Pepresentatives, that 
such an act dissolved the Union virtually ; but the 
practical advantages of Union were stronger than the 
subtleties of logic, and his statement led to nothing. 
There was an approach toward the same sentiment in 
the Federalist party during the war with England in 
1812-15, which at length found utterance in the Hart¬ 
ford Convention, at the time that the war was being 
ended by negotiations at Ghent, and the effect of the 
convention was to destroy the influence of the Federal 
party as well as of its prominent men in any combi¬ 
nation afterwards made. Public opinion, sound to 
the core, had no tolerance hu' views that endangered 
the public safety, and that fact testified to what was 
meant by the Constitution. 

4. — The Missouri Compromise in 1820 was 
made the occasion for the South to threaten secession, 
when the North objected to the admission of the new 
State, unless there were stringent limitations placed 
upon the slave power. Again, there was a threat of nul- 


820 COUXTEIES OF XOETH AMEEICA. 

lification in 1828 from South Carolina, when the Pro¬ 
tective Tarifi of that date was enacted, and in 1882 
there was an attempt to carry the menace into effect; 
but as we have seen, the then President, Gen. Jack- 
son, emphatically a man of action, responded by send¬ 
ing troops to enforce the law, while justifying himself 
in his course by the publication of a masterly state¬ 
ment. Henry Clay came to the rescue with a com¬ 
promise measure and a collision was avoided, but 
there can be no doubt as to the result, had the policy 
of nullification been maintained. There was no such 
sentiment on the tariff, as would havm called forth 
cooperative southern effort in civil war, and the Gen¬ 
eral would have stamped out the small beginning 
without hesitation. There had been no recognition of 
the asserted right to secede, but there was a con¬ 
siderable party that claimed to have reserved the 
power to be used whenever the circumstances war¬ 
ranted its exercise in the last resort. 

5 . — Negeo Slaveey, once general in the colonies, 
but now partially repudiated in the states, afi[orded the 
ground upon which the secession issue could be tried. 
The South claimed that the ISTorth had abandoned 
slavery only because it did not pay, and therefore 
there could be no reason for its being bound by an 
example that did not apply in the circumstances of the 
south, where it was believed by nearly the whole pop¬ 
ulation that negro labor must be used, and could only 
be availed of profitably in the form of slavery. Really 
the North had abandoned the domestic institution on 
two grounds, not inconsistent with each other; 1st. 
That slavery is a wasteful system not conducive to 
material prosperity ; and, 2d. On the higher plane, be¬ 
cause it was wrong in the sight of God for one man to 
hold another in bondage, except as a punishment for 
wrongdoing. With the growth of popular intelligence, 
and more especially with the preponderance of con¬ 
science in the developement of public opinion, those 
views had been silently spreading among the masses. 


UNITED STATES. 


821 ' 


The higher plane had been reached by but few men, the 
lower had been realized by many; hence, the Aboli¬ 
tionists were treated as zealots who wanted to carry 
things to extremes, beyond the line of interference, 
warranted by the constitution. Just at that point 
there was safety for the slave owners, if they had kept 
within the written law and their rights of property, 
however repugnant to the higher law, would have 
commanded observance; but the necessities of their 
condition demanded a system of continuous aggres¬ 
sions, until men like Abraham Lincoln, able to appre¬ 
ciate the legal and social aspect of the whole question, 
without being carried away by the glamour of mis¬ 
leading zeal, were compelled to see that the whole 
Union must become subject to the slave system unless 
the system could be entirely erased. That idea was 
slowl}^ becoming a dispassionate conviction in many 
minds. 

6 . — Every New Territory that was to be organ¬ 
ized, and every state that sought admission, was scan¬ 
ned narrowly by leaders of public opinion north and 
south, with a jealous fear that one or the other might 
be securing additional power in the Union. The de¬ 
bates in 1819-20, temporarily ended by the Missouri 
Compromise, did not set the question at rest; it was 
seething continually in the minds of the community. 
The compromise of 1820 hardly postponed the evil 
day, and the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, the organic act 
for the two territories since admitted as Free States, 
precipitated the event which it was intended to post¬ 
pone or avert The question which might have been 
settled by Congress without riot or confusion was sent 
to be fought out in the territory, among men who be¬ 
came more and more embittered every day, and whose 
battles were watched with angry solicitude before long 
by the contending factions north and sonth. 

7. —Stephen A. Douglas with matchless power 
tried to hold in leash the two arms of the Democracy 
north and south. Giving all that he dared to the South, 

21 





822 


COUNTKIES OF NOETH AMERICA. 


he was arrested at Squatter Sovereignty by public 
opinion in his own party at the North, and he coaid not 
go farther without sacrificing all claim on their regard, 
yet the South, finding that Squatter Sovereignty failed 
to give them Kansas, demanded impossible concessions 
from the great leader, and when he could advance no 
longer upon their line, repudiated him to seek their 
fortune at the cannon’s mouth. That act of repudia¬ 
tion threw away their last chance of success. Going 
solid for Douglas, they could have elected the succes¬ 
sor to Buchannan, but divided in their rage between 
Breckenridge and the great leader, they permitted the 
still greater man, Lincoln, upon whom they had no 
claim whatever, to occupy the position in which he be¬ 
came, without one effort on his own part to misuse 
the powers entrusted to his administration, the instru¬ 
ment in the hands of God to bring human laws into 
accord with the divine ordinances. 

8. — Abraham Lincoln’s Election in November, 
1860, was the signal for secession, because it was 
known that there would be no favor exhibited by him 
for their schemes of slavery extension. He had an¬ 
nounced clearly enough that slavery must be protected 
where it already had a foothold ; but that there must 
be no extension. They had long since concluded that 
every man wLo had not taken hold with the proslavery 
party, was at heart an abolitionist; therefore they 
feared Lincoln unduly; but on the other hand they 
were well aware of the fact that slavery must fail un¬ 
less they had at their disposal an always increasing 
territory in which to dispose of their human stock. 

9. — South Carolina led off in the dance of death. 
The legislature in that state was sitting, and a con¬ 
vention was called for December 20, which duly an¬ 
swered the summons by an ordinance, declaring that 
state no longer in the Union. Seven states had taken 
that step before March 4th, 1861, when Lincoln was 
solemnly inaugurated. There was wisdom in taking 
time by the forelock, .as the safety with which the 


UNITED STATES. 


323 


seceding states could enact their ordinances, while Bu¬ 
chanan remained in office, could not fail to produce an 
effect on the other states, and might overawe the new 
executive by the array of power thus rendered possi¬ 
ble. Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, Louisi¬ 
ana and Texas, were not unanimous for the new de¬ 
parture, but they were carried at that epoch, and it is 
tolerably certain that if the President at that time had 
been other than Buchanan, the vote in each state would 
have showed different results. South Carolina was 
the only state that was really strong on the debatable 
ground. Fight slave states were urged to secede, and 
refused concurrence in that policy. There were in the 
states named, 4,968,994 people, of whom there were 
2,312.046 slaves, or nearly one-half the entire popula¬ 
tion. Among the white populations of the seceding 
states, there were very large minorities that condemned 
secession, and had voted against it, wuth all their 
might. Some even of the slave owners were emphatic 
in their denunciation of the error; Alexander H. 
Stephens, afterwards Vice President of the Confederacy, 
was one of that class; con.sequently the number of men 
that determined to withdraw themselves and a va.st 
area of territory from the Union was altogether dis- 
proportioned to the purpose which had been resolved 
■upon, in the conventions of the seven states. 

10 . — Montgomery, Ala., was nominated as the- 
proper point for the as.sembly of a convention of dele* 
gate.s, to settle the terms of the confederacy, and Feb¬ 
ruary 4th, 1861, one month before the inauguration 
of the new President, was the date fixed for the first 
meeting. The convention copied the constitution of 
the Union with one variation only, the right to carry 
slaves as property from one state to another with¬ 
out voiding proprietar}^ rights. There was ^ pro tern. 
appointment of officers, but eventually the same men 
were elected to the higher offices for six years; Jeffer¬ 
son Davis and Mr. Stephens being President and Vice 
President. Montgomery remained the capital of the 




324 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


Confederacy until Virginia came into the coalition at 
a later date. 

11. — War, not Declared, but actual, commenced 
on the side of the Confederacy as soon as the govern¬ 
ment was formed. The largest Federal force under 
one command was at Indianola, Texas, under Gen. 
Twiggs, and he, waiting only for the appearance of a hos¬ 
tile force, surrendered, with all his material, to the con¬ 
federates, on the 18th of February. Smaller forces on 
the frontiers were captured, with or without complicity, 
and Muth them came arms and ammunition. The 
officers were doubtless aware that any show of defense 
would be unsatisfactory to President Buchanan and 
his advisers. At New Orleans the sub-treasury, with 
half a million of dollars, was treated as spoils cap¬ 
tured from an enemy, and many fortresses and vessels, 
wherever convenient, were taken for confederate use 
and occupation. The movements of the general gov¬ 
ernment for years had been under the direction of the 
men who were now gathering in a harvest of their own 
planting, and the chief executive looked on without 
practical remonstrance, if not with actual approbation. 
In some lawless minds there were also ideas of assas¬ 
sination, that aimed at the prevention of the new Pres¬ 
ident assuming his duties on the 4th of March, 1861. 

12. — President Lincoln, contrarv to the desires 
of his enemies, was inaugurated, but some time elapsed 
before he commenced hostilities. It was necessary to 
know first how much of the public service could be re¬ 
lied upon, and next, the temper of the people had to 
be consulted. Fort Sumter, repeatedly menaced, held 
out for the Union, with a force of only seventy men, a 
peace garrison. Eeinforcements and supplies sent by 
Buchanan in an unarmed vessel, had been driven back 
by Confederate guns, taken from the Union; and the 
Chief Executive exhibited no resentment. Lincoln 
ordered the necessary measures of relief, and it was 
evident that the era of peaceful submission on the side 
of the United States had come to an end. Before re- 


IGNITED STATES. 


825 


inforcements and supplies could arrive, fire was opened 
on Fort Sumter, from many batteries, erected for the 
purpose, and the war challenged the attention of the 
Union on the 12th of April. The reduction of the 
fort was effected in thirty-six hours. This action was 
the express result of orders, many times repeated, from 
Jefferson Davis, who was at that time Chairman of the 
Congressional Committee on Defenses, as well as Pres¬ 
ident of the seceding Confederacy. 

18 . — The North Responded with intense indig¬ 
nation, which left no doubt as to the war feeling. 
Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers, and Stephen A. 
Douglas, better informed as to the crisis, urged him to 
call for 500,000. The larger number would have been 
equipped just as readily as the smaller, d^he people 
were thoroughly aroused, and those who had hereto¬ 
fore championed the South were silenced by the au¬ 
dacity of the Sumter outrage. The President was de¬ 
termined “ to rejiossess the forts, places and property 
siezed from the Union,” but public opinion breathed 
war for the insulted flag. The patience exhibited by 
Lincoln was justified by the result. The call to arms 
was indignantly repudiated by North Carolina, Ken¬ 
tucky, Tennessee, Missouri and Arkansas. Virginia 
passed a secession ordinance, followed by North Caro¬ 
lina, Tennessee and Arkansas at brief intervals. Del¬ 
aware and Maryland were not inclined to aid the Gen¬ 
eral Government, and in Missouri, the Governor not 
being able to pass an ordinance of secession, com¬ 
menced war on his own account. The Confederacy, 
when arrived at its full development, covered about 
one-half the inhabited area of the United States, car¬ 
rying with it about one-third of the population, if we 
leave out of sight the fact, that great minorities in the 
eleven revolted states clung to the Union. Still there 
were minorities in the rest of the Union favorable to the 
Confederacy. The difference was as two to one, with 
wealth and business capacity on the Union side ; train¬ 
ing, military skill and settled plan of action on the 



326 


COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


other. 'Eepublicans were strangers at Annapolis and 
at Westpoint, as subsequent events were to prove. 

14 . — President Davis was in command of 100,- 
000 men, that number having been authorized by the 
Confederate Congress two days after the inauguration 
of President Lincoln. It was signiBcant that the order 
had been delayed until then, as it seemed as though 
the Confederacy had hoped something would happen 
to prevent his coming into power at the proper time. 
The Confederacy assumed possession of all places and 
properties seized from the Union, and commissioners 
were sent to Washington to arrange the terms of seces¬ 
sion. Duties were being collected on shipments from 
Union states, and arrangements were already made to 
seize Fort Sumter : yet the commissioners from Mont¬ 
gomery complained of want of frankness on the part of 
Mr. Seward, Secretary of State for the Union. Sumter 
was taken, the Uorth was aroused, Lincoln called for 
volunteers, and Davis, as if surprised at such action, 
accepting that proclamation as a declaration of war, 
authorized at that time, May 17, reprisals against the 
commerce of the United States. His call for troops 
had specified 100,000, and had dated from March 6. 
There was enthusiasm on the side of the South as well 
as angry energy in the Horth. When a loan of $5,- 
000,000 was advertised at Montgomeiw, it was answerd 
by a subscription of $8,000,000. There were 35,000 
men in arms under Davis before the close of April, 
and 10,000 were dispatched towards the North. The 
Congress adjourned on the 21st of May, having sat 
less than one month in Montgomery, to reassemble in 
Eichmond, Ya., in July. The new government meant 
to quarter on the enemy, as all debts due to the North 
were sequestrated, orders being made that such sums 
should be paid into the Confederate treasury. Prac¬ 
tically no doubt, the result was as anticipated, in the 
end ; but immediately the debtors kept the money in 
their own hands, as the amounts were not paid to* one 
side nor the other. In Missouri a force collected at 


UNITED STATES. 


327 


Booneville under Gov. Claiborne Jackson’s orders, 
commanded by Col. Marmaduke, and intended to co¬ 
operate with the Confederate armies — although Mis¬ 
souri had refused to secede — was attacked by Capt. 
Lyon, the camp carried, 2,500 men driven in confusion, 
and an immense quantity of clothing, camp equipage, 
guns and ammunition captured for the Union, on the 
16th of June, 1861. Claiborne Jackson fled from Mis¬ 
souri, and the state, almost evenly divided, adhered 
to the Union. Kentucky and Missouri were nom¬ 
inally represented in the Confederate Congress, but 
the states were not secessionist, although they, with 
Maryland, sent large reinforcements repeatedly to the 
armies under Davis. The openly seceding states were 
Virginia—bating Western Virginia — North and 
South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, 
Tennessee, Arkansas, Texas and Louisiana, eleven 
states out of thirty-four. 

15. — War Measures became stringent within the 
Confederate boundaries in August. All male citizens 
over fourteen years old were compelled by law and 
proclamation on and after the 14th to swear allegiance 
or quit within forty days, on pain of imprisonment. 
A Confederate privateer having been captured and her 
crew treated as criminals, being held for trial, Davis, 
by proclamation, threatened reprisals on prisoners held 
by him, aud in consequence such prisoners were thence¬ 
forth allowed the same treatment as ordinary prisoners 
of war. Soon afterwards the practice of exchanging 
prisoners of war was initiated and continued through 
the war; but belligerent Unionists residing in the se¬ 
ceding states were punished as traitors. 

16 . — The Civil War during 1861 was mainly 
advantageous to the Confederate arms. The North, 
taken by surprise, her ships beforehand sent to dis¬ 
tant seas by traitorous officials, her arsenals undefended, 
her material of war massed in the south for easy cap¬ 
ture, her troops scattered where they were powerless, 
or could be corrupted, had to begin under Lincoln, 





328 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


after Sumter had been captured, the work of prepara¬ 
tion for the greatest civil war ever known ; hence, the 
armies sent into the neld were raw levies, to a large 
extent, officered by men without military experience. 
Norfolk Navy Yard and four vessels were captured, 
including the Merrimac, afterwards razed and con¬ 
verted into the ironclad ram Virginia, so destructive 
to our ships before she came into contact with Erics¬ 
son’s Monrtor. There fell into the Confederate hands 
at that time, without firing a shot, 2,000 cannon, be¬ 
sides small arms and munitions of immense value, 
although there were officers in charge whose duty it 
was, with ample means at their disposal, to defend the 
property of the Union. This capture was made on the 
20th of April, the eighth day after the fall of Sumter, 
and on the day before the affair at Norfolk, a mob in 
the streets of Baltimore had attacked the Sixth Massa¬ 
chusetts Eegirnent, marching to Washington. The 
rnob held Baltimore until May 13th, when Butler 
came with 900 men and took possession of the city. 
The affair at Big Bethel was a Confederate victory, 
and Davis could send an army to overpower Western 
Virginia, which was only protected by McClellan, and 
his victories at Philippi, Eich Mountain, Laurel Hill 
and Carrick’s Ford, from the 2d of June to the 12th of 
July, followed by the indecisive actions under Eose- 
crans at Carnifax Ferry, Cheat Mountain and Alle¬ 
ghany Summit. Eastern Virginia, the old state, was 
the scene of a battle at Manassas Junction, where the 
Union arms sustained a severe defeat on the 21st of 
June, and might have been almost annihilated, al¬ 
though there were as many Union troops within the 
sounds of the cannonade, only listening to the guns, as 
were actually under fire. The defeat" at Ball^ Bluff 
was but a small affair, but the death of Gren. Baker 
was a great loss to the Union. The defeat for the 
Confederate arms at Dranesville was but a trivial re¬ 
pulse, and the operations of the Army of the Potomac 
for 1861 are all recorded. On the coast the Confed- 


UNITED STATES. 


829 


eracy suffered losses by the capture of Forts Hatteras 
and Clark, Port Royal, Hilton Head and Phillips’ 
Island, with the sea islands adjoining, but Savannah 
and Charleston were protected. Missouri was for some 
time the scene of Confederate successes, under Gov. 
C. F. Jackson, although the state declared Jackson a 
traitor, and vacated his office. Lyon, who captured 
Jackson’s force at Boonville, June 16th, fell mortally 
wounded in an engagement at Wilson’s Creek, and Col. 
Mulligan, with a force of nearly 8,000 men, was com¬ 
pelled to surrender on the 20th of September. Fre¬ 
mont was routing the Confederates with an army of 
80,000 men, when he was superseded, and his suc¬ 
cessor abandoned Southern Missouri. Grant, after 
much delay, had been sent into service with a small 
command, and he achieved a temporary success at Bel¬ 
mont, but eventually had to retire in good order, with 
guns and prisoners captured by him, before large rein¬ 
forcements. Col. Jefferson C. Davis surprised and 
captured a Confederate camp at Millford. Thus the 
campaign of the first year was in the main favorable to 
the arms and designs of the Confederacy. 

17. — The operations of 1862 opened more success¬ 
fully for the North. General George H. Thomas, on 
the 19th of January, defeated a Confederate force un 
der Crittenden and drove that army across the Cum¬ 
berland with great loss in men, arms, horses and guns, 
making a great diversion in Southern Kentucky. 
Grant and Foote reduced Forts Henry and Donelson, 
with large results in prisoners, guns and reputation, 
besides which the camp at Bowling Green, Ky., Nash¬ 
ville, and all Northern Tennessee, fell under the con¬ 
trol of Union forces; which were able to move upon 
Corinth, having proceeded up the Tennessee to Savan¬ 
nah and Pittsburg Landing. Paducah and Columbus 
were lost by the South, a force was driven from New 
Madrid with heavy losses, and Makall, with 6,700 
men, 7,000 small arms and 123 cannon, surrendered. 
The Confederate Flotilla at Memphis was routed and 


830 COUNTKIES OF NOETH AMEEICA. 

Memphis surrendered to Commodore Foote, and before 
the end of June Vicksburg alone, on the Mississippi, 
resisted the attacks of the Federal forces. The sur¬ 
prise of GTrant’s camp at Pittsburg Landing, while 
that officer was at Savannah and waiting to be rein¬ 
forced by Buell, would have been a Confederate vic¬ 
tory but for the second day’s fighting, in which, Grant 
having returned on the evening before, the Confeder¬ 
ate force under Beauregard was driven beyond the 
camp which had been surprised at the commencement 
of the assault, and was eventually obliged to evacuate 
Corinth. Some towns on the Tennessee were also 
taken, but Chattanooga held out against all assaults. 

18. — New Mexico was occupied by a small force 
of Union Pegulars, and there were unsuccessful at¬ 
tempts to carry them over to the Confederacy, but the 
soldiers, true to their flag, were then betrayed by the 
officer in command into a position where surrender 
was inevitable. There were some comparatively un¬ 
important operations in that territory in 1861 and 1862. 
as all the resources of that region would not feed the 
Confederate force employed on the service, and the 
small remains of an army returned with much suffer¬ 
ing from the capital of New Mexico to Texas. Indian 
allies were procured by the Confederacy, as the result 
of much negotiation ; but the parties to the compact, 
mutually disgusted, sundered the alliance speedily. 
The power of the Indians to consume rations was ex¬ 
hibited with startling effect, when Gen. Pike brought 
a brigade of scalpers to reinforce Price at Boston 
Mountain, Arkansas, and 5,000 Indians fought near 
Bentonville under Van Dorn, who superseded Price, 
where 10,500 Federals compelled 21,000 Confederates 
to retreat after two days hard fighting. The move¬ 
ments of Curtis, after that victory, allowed the Con¬ 
federates to operate in Missouri once more with many 
petty successes achieved over small bodies of Union 
troops; but eventually they were driven into Arkan¬ 
sas, where a desperately contested battle was fought 


UNITED STATES. 


881 


on the 7th of December, at Fayetteville, as the result 
of which the Confederates again retreated after suffer¬ 
ing severe losses. 

19. — Roanoke Island, ISTewbern, two steam¬ 
boats, and sixty-nine cannon, were part of the Con¬ 
federate losses this year, and Fort Macon also fell after 
being invested. Washington, Plymouth and other 
ports in North Carolina surrendered, the Union forces 
were repulsed at South Mills and Goldsboro. Gen. 
Butler, with'a land force cooperating with Commodore 
Farragut and a naval force, carried out a brilliant 
attack on New Orleans, which was completely suc¬ 
cessful, the result being disastrous to the Confederate 
arms, and especially glorious for Farragut and the 
naval arm of the service. Carrollton was set on fire 
and deserted, the gunboats massed at New Orleans 
captured or routed, the forts taken and Butler re¬ 
mained to govern the captured city with great energy 
until December 16th. All the towns on the Missis- 
eippi, below Vicksburg, were captured by this expe¬ 
dition. Baton Rouge -was assailed by a Confederate 
force on the 5th of August, but the attempt was a 
signal failure and a large part of Louisiana was pos¬ 
sessed by the Federals. 

20. — Gen. McClellan had a force of about 200,- 
000 men under his command during the winter of 
1861-62, but the army of the Potomac remained 
inactive until February 22d, when it was moved to 
Manassas Junction, under express orders from Presi¬ 
dent Lincoln. The Confederates retired from that 
position as soon as he approached. Transferring his 
army by water to Fortress Monroe, McClellan now 
menaced Richmond along the Peninsula. Stonewall 
Jackson sustained a defeat at Kernstown, losing 1,000 
men, his opponent, Gen. Shields, suffering much less. 
The career of the Merrimack, now the Virginia Ram, 
in Hampton Roads, was cut short by the arrival of 
the Monitor just before McClellan reached the James 
River. This aflfair happened on the 8th and 9th of 





832 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

March, and the Virginia was never in action after¬ 
wards, having been destroyed by the Confederates 
when Norfolk navy yard was abandoned. McClellan 
following 58,000 of his army with as many more to 
follow him, arrived at Fortress Monroe April 2d, but 
his advance was stopped near Yorktown by Magruder, 
who held a line thirteen miles long for thirty days 
with 11,000 men against the army of the Potomac ; 
retreating then as there were breaching batteries ready 
to open on his works. McClellan reached the Chick- 
ahominy May 20th. There had been much hard 
fighting against inferior forces and the advance caused 
the abandonment of Norfolk with the navy yard and 
200 guns. McClellan now halted once more and 
fortified his position. The brilliant operations of 
Stonewall Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley were the 
brightest features in the Confederate record, as with a 
small force he repeatedly attacked and defeated the 
different Union commanders with whom he collided, 
having in the aggregate about 70,000 troops, caused 
serious alarm in Washington and prejudicially affected 
the campaign of McClellan. Lee was now in command 
of the army at Richmond, and Jackson was placed 
under his orders. 

21. — Battle of Fair Oaks. There had been 
many petty operations and many of considerable im¬ 
portance before this battle, but the fortunes of Mc¬ 
Clellan turned upon this action which commenced on 
the 28th of May, by an attack under Gen. Jos. E. 
Johnston’s orders. Johnston was disabled by a shell, 
and for many months was unable to resume. It was 
in consequence of that fact that Gen. Lee was called 
to the chief command at Richmond. The advantages 
gained by the Confederates in the beginning of the 
battle were neutralized after the fall of their com¬ 
mander, and at the close of the day when the attack¬ 
ing force drew off, there was no considerable gain on 
either side. There was some fighting next day, but 
nothing worthy of particular mention, except an ap- 


UNITED STATES. 


833 


proach within four miles of Kichmond by Ilooker, 
but he was recalled to Fair Oaks, and McClellan did 
nothing for one month, during which time Gen. Lee 
made his arrangements at his leisure, called in Jack- 
son and other reinforcements, to enable him to cope 
with the army of 156,828 men under the Union com¬ 
mander; and generally made himself master of the 
situation. When Lee was quite ready on the 26th of 
June, Mechanicsville was the scene of operations, and 
after Hill had sustained a repulse from the Federals, 
Porter was ordei'ed to fall back to Gaines’ Mill, where 
he was defeated, with a loss of 19 guns and 8,000 
men. McClellan’s base of supplies at West Point 
having been captured, that General now ordered 
a retreat to the James River. Every day had its 
battle and every night its march, until that river was 
reached, when the troops concentrated on Malvern 
Hill, and supported by gunboats on the river, fought 
successfully one of the bloodiest battles of the war; 
the Confederates being repulsed at every point, with a 
loss of about 10,000 m.en. The losses on both sides 
were very severe during the campaign, from the arri¬ 
val of McClellan on the Chickahominy to his return 
to the James at Harrison’s Landing, and there was 
nothing to show on the Union side as an offset to the 
loss in blood and treasure. The Confederates, with 
inferior forces, had practically defeated and driven ofif 
the army to the Potomac. 

22 , — Gen. Pope’s Command of 50,000, charged 
with the defense of Washington, was severely han¬ 
dled in detail by the Confederates at Cedar Mountain, 
on the 9th of August, and at many minor points, un¬ 
til the main body suffered a terrible repulse at Manas¬ 
sas Junction on the 29th. It is claimed that the sec¬ 
ond misadventure at Bull Run was largely due to Mc¬ 
Clellan having failed to support Pope. The battle 
was continued on the 30th without advantage to the 
Union arms, and Pope retiring to the Potomac re¬ 
signed his command. The Union had lost 25,000 in. 



834 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

this disastrous campaiofn, including many officers of 
distinguished merit. McClellan was once more Com¬ 
mander in-Chief of the Army of the Potomac. 

23. — Gen. Lee advanced into Maryland Septem¬ 
ber 8, McClellan following upon his right wing; but 
as if Lee knew that there was nothing to fear from the 
dash of his opponent, he at that time detached Jack- 
son to capture Harper’s Ferry and a force of 12,000 
men under Col. Miles. There were several slight en¬ 
gagements in the following days, but the battle of 
Antietarn, wffiich should have destroyed Lee before 
Stonewall Jackson could rejoin him, w’as not fought 
until September 17th, when Jackson, after taking 
Harper’s Ferry, was able to assist Lee in resisting the 
Union forces. The Union force engaged was 87,000; 
the Confederates 70,000, and the battle was one of the 
most destructive in the w^ar. Many regiments lost 
half their number, and at night, when the advantage 
was inclining to the side of the LTnion, Lee was al¬ 
lowed to escape unmolested. McClellan was relieved 
of his command on the 7th of ISTovember. 

24. — Gen. Burnside the successor to McClellan, 
distinguished himself by his operations before Fred¬ 
ericksburg, where thousands of men were wounded 
and slaughtered before a stone wall defended by pick¬ 
ed troops, so posted that it w^as impossible to effect 
their dislodgment. On the 28th of January, 1863, 
Burnside was relieved from the command. 

25. — Gen. Halleck, in command of the armies of 
Grant and Buell after Pittsburg Landing, did nothing 
worthy of note after the capture of Corinth, and on 
the whole there was a decided gain for the Confeder¬ 
ates in the partisan war that prevailed for some months 
in Tennessee. Gen. Bragg with 45,000 men, in June, 
crossed the Tennessee near Chattanooga, and striking 
boldly through the state, with many minor successes, 
entered Kentucky where he had the satisfaction to 
capture Mumfordsville, and to throw Cincinnati and 
Louisville into great trepidation. Buell was on Bragg’s 


UNITED STATES. 


335 


tracks with 100,000 men, but he distrusted the effec¬ 
tiveness of his troops, most of them raw levies, and 
no action was attempted bj him until his left wing 
was struck by Bragg’s force, on the 9th of October, 
near TIarrodsville. The fight commenced at 2 P. M., 
but Buell was not aware of the fact until four o’clock, 
and although the losses on the Union side were nearly 
twice as great as those on the other, the advantage was 
clearly with the Unionists when darkness closed in 
upon the combat, and during the night Bragg retreat¬ 
ed towards Tennessee, crossing the Cumberland Moun¬ 
tains before he paused. The result of that engage¬ 
ment seemed to indicate that Buell need not have 
feared the capacity of his men to cope with an enemy. 

26. — Gen. Grant was commanding in West Ten¬ 
nessee, having succeeded to that position when Hal- 
leck became General in Chief. He devised a scheme 
of attack that should have captured luka defended by 
Gen. Sterling Price, but Kosecrans failed to carry out 
the orders given, and in consequence the victory was 
incomplete. Price abandoned his position during the 
night of September 19th, having sustained a loss of 
1,000 men. Grant then directed the fortification of 
Corinth, which enabled him to repulse the combined 
assaults of Confederate forces for its recovery on the 
3d and 4th of October, and on the 5th the battle of 
the Hatchie resulted in another success for the arms of 
the Union. Yan Dorn and Price retreated with precip¬ 
itation. 

27. — Gen. Eosecrans now succeeded Gen. Buell 
and the army was known as The Army of the Cum¬ 
berland. The new commander transferred his head 
quarters to Nashville and he had now 65,000 men un¬ 
der his control. Eosecrans advanced towards Mur¬ 
freesboro on the 26th of December, where his right was 
assailed and routed on the 81st, with great loss of 
men and guns, but the center and left stood firm, and 
tiie Confederates did not renew the attack on the 1st 
of January, 1868. The battle was renewed on the 2d, 





836 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

and after hard fighting all day, Bragg evacuated Mur¬ 
freesboro at night, having suffered very heavily. His 
losses in the protracted engagement were over 10,000 
men. A detachment sent to operate upon Bragg’s rear 
by Eosecrans was surrounded near Eome, Ga., and com¬ 
pelled to surrender. Eosecrans now sat still for sev¬ 
eral months, until Bragg returned to give him battle, 
with a change of destiny at Chickamauga. 

28. — Commodore Foote, who was associated with 
Grant in the capture of Forts Henry and Donelson, in 
the beginning of the year, swept down the Mississippi 
from Cairo to Vicksburg, where for a time the arms of 
the Eepublic were doomed to endure many repulses; 
but many successes were achieved by his cooperation 
with Gen. Pope in Missouri and Gen. Sherman on the 
Kentucky side. Columbus, K}^, was abandoned on 
his approach ; New Madrid, Mo., and Island No. 10, 
in the Mississippi, were also taken. Then Memphis 
and the Confederate Flotilla fell, after which an ex¬ 
cursion up the White Eiver resulted in the capture of 
St. Charles, and a combined attack of the two fleets, 
that of Farragut combined with that of Foote, upon 
Vicksburg, which failed to carry the stronghold, was 
abandoned on the 24th of July. There was a good 
record for the naval arm of the Union service. 

29. — The Mississippi Valley had now been 
handed over to Grant as the scene of his command, 
and he had advanced toward Vicksburg about fifty 
miles, leaving his supplies with a guard of 2,000 men 
at Holly Springs, under Col. Murphy. Van Dorn 
came down upon the place, Murphy surrendered the 
place with his force and himself as prisoners, and the 
Confederates despoiled Grant of $4,000,000 worth of 
stores. Murphy was cashiered, but Grant was forced 
to abandon his expedition, which was probably the 
chief object of the attack. Sherman was already on 
his way to Vicksburg to cooperate with Grant in the 
attempt to capture the place, and in pursuance of his 
duty he assailed the batteries commanding Chickasaw 



*THE PRAYER BEFORE THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL. 



WELCOME^ ENGLISHMEN.—PLYMOUTH, 1621. 




















































































































p 



(, 


I 


UNITED STATES. 


837 


j Bayou, on the 22d of December, but partially because 
: of the strength of the works, and still more for want 
^ of the combined power that had been relied upon, the 
attempt had to be abandoned. Gen. McOlernand suc¬ 
ceeding Sherman, captured Arkansas Post, or Fort 
Hindman, on the Arkansas Piver, and the records of 
the second year of the war have come to an end, with 
prospects much more cheering for the Union, but 
■ without any fatal indications for the Confederate cause. 

30. — The Campaign of 1863, opened with the 
arrival of Grant at Memphis, on the 2d of February, 
he determined to take Vicksburg. The difficulties in 
the way were only additional reasons why the place 
should be taken. Failing to gain the rear of the 
works by the north, Grant turned to the south, where 
the obstacles were at least surmountable; and on the 
30th of April, ably seconded by Commodore Porter, 
his army crossed at Bruinsburg, captured Fort Gibson 
and Grand Gulf, defeating all such forces as were sent 
to impede his advance, capturing guns and material at 
all points. The case was becoming critical, and next 
to Lee, the best man on the Confederate side was dis¬ 
patched to this command. Gen. Joe. E. Johnston 
! ordered Pemberton to join him with the force that 
had been employed in defending Vicksburg, and the 
combined army would have largely outnumbered 
Grant’s command. There was not a moment to spare, 
and Grant seemed ubiquitous. On the 12th he de- 
' stroyed a force coming from Jackson to assist Pem¬ 
berton ; on the 14th he captured Jackson and destroyed 
the efficiency of Johnston’s army; turning the same 
day he struck Pemberton with his main body at 
Champion Hill, and routed him completely; follow¬ 
ing him as he attempted to rally on the 17th, he once 
more defeated him at Black Kiver Bridge, driving 
him into Vicksburg on the 18th. The indomitable 
leader attempted at once to carry the fortress by as¬ 
sault. The attempt was repeated on the 19th and 
22d of May, but a siege was found to be necessary, 
22 





838 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


and the place fell on the 4th of July, with great eclat 
for Union arms and tremendous loss for the Confede¬ 
rates. The Mississippi was entirely in the hands of 
the United States. 

31 . — Gen. Banks who succeeded Gen. Butler in 
the command at New Orleans, having learned that 
Galveston had surrendered to four gun boats, sent 
down a regiment to take possession, and part of that 
force only had landed when Gen. Magruder command¬ 
ing the Confederate forces in Texas, attacked the 
Union fleet in the harbor, sank one vessel, captured 
another, and compelled the troops to surrender. Other 
operations of a like description made the Confederate 
cause a winning side in Texas. Banks with a force 
nominally of 30,000 men, but hardly 14,000 effectives, 
so great were the losses from sickness and desertion, 
captured Alexandria and besieged Port Hudson, but 
the garrison would have continued its resistance but 
for the news of the failure to hold Vickburg, upon 
being convinced of which, Gen. Gardener surrendered 
the Port and 6,408. The effectives under Banks that 
day only numbered about 10,000, and he had captured 
during his operations 10,584 men, 73 guns and 6,000 
stand of arms. The operations of the force under 
Banks in Texas were not of a character to affect the 
general issue, but generally his expeditions were a 
trifle late or too early, too strong or not strong enough, 
and he is more to be remembered for the places that he 
failed to take than for the captures recorded to his 
honor. Brazos Santiago, Brownville, Aransas Pass, 
and Fort Esperanza on Matagorda Bay, were among 
his prizes, but there was hardly any force in opposition, 
and there was scarcely any military value in their pos¬ 
session. In the spring of 1864, Shreveport was taken 
and Gen. Price was outnumbered and routed. Banks 
should have cooperated with the fleet by an advance 
beyond Alexandria, March 1, 1864; he barely reached 
the place on the 16th and then could go no further 
until April first. His movements beyond that point 


UNITED STATES. 


389 


! were blunders and misfortunes of which the Confed¬ 
erates largely availed themselves at Sabine Cross 
Koads, at Pleasant Grove, at Dean s Bayou, at Man- 
I sura and at Yellow Bayou. One gunboat had to be 
; blown up to prevent capture by the Confederates, 
j three were captured and one was'burned. The iorce 
from Little Rock, which was to cooperate with Banks 
i if he had come to time, was exposed to imminent 
peril in consequence of his failure, but Gen. Steele 
succeeded in bringing off his main body without ma¬ 
terial disaster, and Arkansas remained Unionist in the 
northeastern half. Confederate in the other to the end 
of the war. 

— Rosecrans in Tennessee enjoyed a period 
of repose from the beginning of January until the 
I 24th of June, 1863, when he advanced from Murfrees¬ 
boro to Shelbyville, taking a few guns and a few hun¬ 
dred prisoners. Bragg retreated before him with lit¬ 
tle loss. Chattanooga was evacuated, and everything 
j conspired to beget a false confidence in the Union 
i general, when Bragg reinforced by Longstreet’s corps 

j from Virginia, turned upon him suddenly with a force- 

« about equal to his own, something near 55,000 men.. 

! The battle of Chickamauga was thus commenced un- 
i der heavy disadvantages, but the first day, Sept. 19th,, 
passed without any marked disaster. On the 20th, 
Rosecrans’ right was completel}^ shattered by Long- 
street and with part of the center was swept from the 
field, Rosecrans going with the dying troops to Chat¬ 
tanooga. Gen. Thomas holding the left, stood unrnov- 
all that day, repelling all attacks until the Confeder¬ 
ates drew off. “The Rock of Chickamauga” occu¬ 
pied his post all day on the 21st, and when night came, 
retired to the position assigned him by Rosecrans in 
front of Chickamauga. Rosecrans held Chattanooga 
until orders arrived for him to hand over his com¬ 
mand to Gen. Thomas. The Garrison suffered tre¬ 
mendously before aid could be forwarded, but there 
was relief of a very effective sort on the way, such as 




340 


COUNTllIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


would terminate southern pretensions in that quarter 
for some time. 

33. — Gen. Grant was sent to assume the com¬ 
mand in chief in this region, Sherman being ordered 
up from Yicksburg to serve under him, and Hooker, 
with two corps from the arrnj of the Potomac. Sup¬ 
plies were the first necessity, and Hooker was intrusted 
with the duty of clearing the river Tennessee so that 
the starving soldiery might be saved from absolute 
famine. The commissariat thus cared for, the next 
desire was to reach the point of danger before any 
further mishap could occur. Grant, now a Major Gen¬ 
eral in the regular army, and in command of all the 
forces in the valley of the Mississippi, had vast respon¬ 
sibilities upon him, but he was equal to the emergency, 
He was before Chattanooga on the 23d of October, 
and on the 27th the battle of Lookout Valley was 
fought under his direction, after which there were sup¬ 
plies for the army before the city in which Rosecrans 
had been shut up. Sherman came by forced marches 
ready for any duty on the 15th of November, and as 
soon as his arrangements were completed. Grant’s 
Fourth corps moved out directly in front of Chatta¬ 
nooga, seizing the Confederate outposts before they 
dreamed that they were in danger, on the 22d of 
November. Bragg was still on Lookout Mountain 
looking down into Chattanooga and occupying a posi¬ 
tion assumed to be impregnable. The battle of Chat¬ 
tanooga commenced on the 23d at two in the after¬ 
noon by an attack on the Confederate left, gallantly 
executed by Gen. Thomas. The rifle pits were car¬ 
ried and held during the night. Morning, on the 24th, 
found the battle renewed along the whole line. Sher¬ 
man carried the end of Missionary Ridge near the rail¬ 
road tunnel, and Thomas, strengthened in his post, 
repelled every effort of the Confederates near the 
center, while Hooker, against odds that were simply 
terrihc, had made a lodgment on Lookout Mountain, 
in which he was so strong, that during the night the 


UNITED STATES. 


341 


Confederates abandoned that position entirely. Dawn, 
on the 25th, found the men again ready for their work 
on both sides, but the burden of a manifest destiny 
loaded down the Confederates. All through that day 
the battle raged, the charge up Missionary llidge being 
one of the handsomest sights ever presented by actual 
war, and it was almost dark when the work was 
ended. Bragg’s army was routed beyond rallying. 
The Chattanooga rifle pits, Missionary Kidge and 
Lookout Mountain top were successively won and 
held with perseverence and valor never surpassed. 
The losses on the Union side were about 6,000 all 
told, while the Confederates lost 6,000 in prisoners 
alone, forty pieces of artillery and thousands of small 
arms." Sherman and Hooker, leaving nothing to chance, 
followed the fugitives almost as rapidly as they fled, 
and when, on the 27th, there was a .stand made at 
Taylor’s Ridge, near Ringgold, Georgia, another fight, 
short and desperate, made an end of that effort. 

34. — Gen. Burnside was no sooner relieved of the 
too weighty responsibility of the command of the 
Army of the Potomac, than he was transferred to the 
command of the department of Ohio, where he achieved 
successes against Morgan’s Raiders, compelled Gen. 
Frazer to surrender the almost impregnable position of 
Cumberland Gap, and continued in charge of East 
Tennessee, distinguishing himself in several actions, 
until after the defeat of Rosecrans at Chickamauga, 
Longstreet with a superior force drove him into Knox¬ 
ville. Burnside defended Knoxville against the force 
under Longstreet until it became possible for Grant to 
dispatch Sherman to his relief. The day before Sher¬ 
man’s arrival a desperate onslaught was made by 
Longstreet in the hope that he might carry the town 
before relief could reach the defenders, but the repulse 
was complete, and the retreat was made just in time 
to escape the relieving force. After that event Burn¬ 
side was engaged in the terrible campaign between 
Grant and Lee in Virginia. 


/ 






342 


COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


35. — Gen. Hooker, one of the best fighting men 
on the Union side, whom we have just seen in the 
brilliant campaign under Grant, relieved Burnside of 
the command of the Army of the Potomac in January, 
1863, when the desertions averaged over 200 per day, 
and demoralization had reached its depth in conse¬ 
quence of the disastrous failure at Fredericksburg; 
and two months were spent in giving tone and effi¬ 
ciency to his force, before it was possible to recom¬ 
mence offensive operations. The affair at Chancellors- 
ville, in which Stonewall Jackson fell mortally 
wounded, extinguished the eleventh corps of Hookers 
army, the right being taken in the rear while at sup¬ 
per, by Jackson with 25,000 men, whose impetuous 
daring could not be resisted. In the battle of the 
next day Hooker was injured by a cannon ball strik¬ 
ing a post against which he was leaning, so that he was 
unable to direct operations, or to carry out the plans 
already laid; consequently he found it necessary to 
recross the Kappahannock after many days hard fight¬ 
ing in which he had lost about 18,000 men, but in 
which it is probable that the Confederate loss was 
nearly as great as his own. While Hooker was plan¬ 
ning a movement to flank Gen. Lee, that officer exe¬ 
cuted a similar design against the Union army by 
Culpepper Court House into the Shenandoah Valley 
and across the Potomac, so that by the 25th of June, 
Lee’s army had all crossed the Potomac and were ad¬ 
vancing into Pennsylvania over 100,000 strong. 
Hooker had followed this daring movement with 
proper care, and succeeded in deflecting Lee from his 
proposed line of march; but in consequence of a dis¬ 
pute with Halleck, his superior officer, on his demand 
for 10,000 additional troops from Maryland Heights, 
his resignation was accepted a few days before the 
battle of Gettysburg; but it is claimed that the glory 
of that action is largely due to the services previously 
rendered by Hooker, and Congress gave him special 
thanks. The battle of Gettysburg was fought under 


UNITED STATES. 


843 


Gen. Meade on the Union side, Gen. Lee in person 
commanding the Confederate forces. July commenced 
with the preliminary skirmishing of this terrible three 
days fighting, which cost the Union 24,000 men, and 
the Confederate cause at least 36,000; and on the an¬ 
niversary of our Independence, the Southern force was 
in full retreat, but allowed to escape by the culpable 
negligence of Meade, when he should have followed 
up his dearly bought advantage. The fighting on both 
sides was very grand, and the result, even in spite of 
the incompleteness permitted by Meade, was destruct¬ 
ive to the chances of the Confederacy. After the de- 
feat sustained by Lee, he retreated to his former posi¬ 
tion on the Rappahannock, abandoning all ideas for 
the time of dictating peace in Uew York or Philadel¬ 
phia. Meade returned to the old position of the Army 
of the Potomac on the north ' bank of the Rappahan¬ 
nock facing Lee, and in that way the campaign of 1863 
practically ended, as the partisan skirmishes incidental 
to the proximity of hostile troops did not affect the 
welfare of either force; and the proposed attack on 
Lee at Mire Run after Longstreet had gone into Ten¬ 
nessee, was abandoned by Meade after he had actually 
crossed the Rapidan. 

36. — Charleston continued to be closely block¬ 
aded, but every attempt to reduce the forts which con¬ 
stituted the defenses of the city proved abortive during 
the year. The naval supremacy of the north upon the 
coast could not be doubted, although the ravages of 
Confederate cruisers and privateers had almost com¬ 
pletely ruineti the commerce of the Union. The Con¬ 
federates had made some gains on the coast, but the 
successes of the Union forces more than balanced every 
such advance. 

37. — Grant Before Richmond. On the first of 
March, 1864, Gen. Grant having been made Lieutenant 
General of the Union armies, there began to be a more 
immediate prospect of an end to the strife; as the dis¬ 
jointed efforts of the several commanders were now to 





844 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

give place to designed and connected movements, 
directed by one brain, and that the most capable, in a 
military sense, that this age and country have pro¬ 
duced. With his customary decision of character. 
Grant moved toward the scene of action, and it soon 
became evident that there was a terrible certainty in 
the operations of the Lieutenant General. A visit to 
Washington enabled him to see all that was being done 
in each of the departments, and to direct such changes 
as were necessary to bring every command into accord 
with his larger designs. Citizens and the army alike 
were satisfied that the new commander, who had given 
proofs of his capacity at Vicksburg, at Chattanooga, 
and wherever his genius for war was left untrammeled, 
would render a good account of the whole Confederate 
force; and many looked for an almost instant succes¬ 
sion of victories. 

38. — The Wilderness. Grant crossed the Kap- 
idan with the army under Meade, May 4th and 5th, 
1864, at Germania and Ely’s Fords, striking at once 
into the Wilderness. Lee was on the watch at a posi¬ 
tion higher up, but he lost no time in striking at his 
antagonist. Up to this hour Lee had not found one 
man his superior at all points, and therefore it was 
necessary to beat Grant for his own glory as well as 
for the welfare of the Confederacy. The country 
through which the Union troops were passing was to 
them entirely new, but to the Confederate forces alto¬ 
gether familiar. The ground, thickly covered with 
small trees, favored the operations of an inferior force 
well acquainted with the locality, against a body nu¬ 
merically superior, but lacking that desirable know¬ 
ledge of the peculiarities of the position. Two days 
of desperate slaughter on’both sides in the Wilderness 
came to an end on the evening of the sixth with a 
dashing attack on Grant’s right, but there was no tell¬ 
ing advantage for either side. Lee doubtless hoped 
that his new antagonist would retreat, intimidated by 
such pertinacity, as others had done before; but Grant 


UNITED STATES. 845 

merely moved on, on the morning of the seventh, 
towards: 

39. — Spottsylvania Court House. The Union 
loss had been at least 20,000, but that was a reason 
for gaining ground rather than retreating. Several 
days of heavy fighting again, with various success, 
Lee narrowly escaping capture once on the 11th, only 
served to illustrate the strength of his position and 
another 20,000 of the Union forces had disappeared. 
Lee on the defensive seemed to be invulnerable. Once 
more moving to the south Grant tried to flank Lee at 
North Anna, on the 17th, but Lee having the inside 
track as to roads, was entrenched at that point before 
his arrival. Butler was to have caused a diversion by 
seizing Petersburg with 30,000 men, while the main 
body was thus occupied, but he was confronted by 
Beauregard and held at bay. The advantages were 
with the Unionists at North Anna, but to storm the 
works would have proved so costly in human life that 
there was another change to Cold Harbor still con¬ 
fronted by Lee, who saw every movement as rapidly 
as it was conceived. Here a general assault was re¬ 
pulsed with great slaughter, and it became evident 
that some other road to Eichmond must be discovered. 
Baffled, but not defeated by the south, although the 
Confederates were really fighting for their last strong¬ 
hold, Grant was south of Richmond in time to have 
seized Petersburg but for the momentary indecision of 
subordinates. Assaults on the 16th and the two fol¬ 
lowing days in June found Lee in full force, and tlie 
works for the time impregnable. Movements follow¬ 
ed each other in rapid succession, a mine sent 300 
Confederates into the air, and thousands of Unionists 
were lost trying to storm the breach, made by the ex¬ 
plosion, in the defenses of Pittsburg. The Weldon 
railroad, attacked at two points, was finally held for 
the Union by Warren, and numerous small successes 
were almost counterpoised by repulses in other direc¬ 
tions, but Grant was closing in upon his antagonist, 




346 COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

determined to win the point though it should “ take all 
summer.” The Army of the Potomac, during 1864. 
lost 88,387 men, but the end could now be seen, as 
the greatest general on’the Confederate side was barely 
able to hold his own against Grant, whose resources 
could be increased without limit, to subdue the always 
decreasing; strength of secession. 

40. — Western Virginia had steadily vetoed 
secession from the first. The Confederacy aiming at 
suppression met with successes in 1861, until McClel¬ 
lan’s army came to the rescue, and at Phillippi, June 
3d, routed the invaders, repeating his victories at Eich 
Mountain and at Carrick’s Ford until the last rem¬ 
nant of the force escaped over the Alleghanies. This 
region was still the region for much fighting, but its 
loyalty to the Union could never be impeached. 
Sheridan came into the command in AVest Virginia 
soon after Grant had established himself before Eich- 
mond, and his career as usual was marked by vigor and 
general success. He had gone to Washington, leaving 
his force at Cedar Creek, apparently safe from attack, 
when Early, defeated just before, but now reinforced, 
made an assault in the darkness of early morning, 
October 19th, and drove the force under Crook, a panic 
stricken mob. Twenty-four guns and 1,200 prison¬ 
ers had been captured, and the army was demoralized. 
Sheridan, at Winchester, on his return learned of the 
disaster, and, within fifteen minutes, he was in the 
saddle dashing at full speed to retrieve the disaster. 
By ten in the forenoon he had reached his defeated 
comrades, and his presence renewed their tone. At 
noon they repulsed a fresh attack on their left. At 
three o’clock they began a general advance with small 
arms only, to confront the artillery of two armies ; 
that brought by Early, and that taken from Crook. 
Before nightfall they had routed their pursuer, taken, 
his guns, in addition to their own, and with the pres¬ 
tige of this victory, the result of Sheridan’s Eide, 
ended the campaign in West Virginia. 


UNITED STATES. 


84T 


41. — CoNFEDEEATE OPERATIONS during 1864, 
away from the great center, were small and various in 
fortune. Fort Pillow, Tennessee, was taken by Gen. 
Forrest, and the garrison, nearly half of whom were 
negroes, were nearly all killed, part of the slaughter 
being carried out after resistance had ceased. Sturgis, 
with a superior force from Memphis, attacking Forrest 
at Guntown, Miss., was routed with terrible slaughter 
and loss, and a change of commanders did not result in 
a defeat of Forrest. East Tennessee and Eastern Ken¬ 
tucky saw Morgan raiding successfully against the 
Union, until Burbridge destroyed half his force at 
Mount Sterling, driving the rest into South West Vir¬ 
ginia, and was in turn defeated by Breckenridge, near 
Abingdon. 

42. — Sherman in the West, under Grant’s 
orders, advanced from Chattanooga early in May with 
an army of 100,000. Johnston, his opponent, had 
54,000 only, but he stubbornly fought every inch of 
debatable ground on the road to Atlanta. Kesaca, on 
the 10th of May, Adairsville, Cassville and Allatoona 
Pass, were all scenes of terrific fighting on both sides; 
but numbers prevailed, wdiere courage and generalship 
were equal. Kenesaw Mountain, flanked by Pine and 
Lost Mountains, cost the Union General several days 
and much slaughter, but the positions were carried in 
succession, although one assault cost Sherman 3,000 
men, while the Confederates were so strongly posted 
that they lost, only 442. Hood relieved Johnston at 
Atlanta, and the Confederate losses became much 
heavier on and after the 20Lh of July. There were 
many brilliant cavalry raids on both sides, led by 
Wheeler for the Confederates, and by Kilpatrick for 
the Union, the advantage always inclining towards the 
North, until, as the result of operations at Jonesboro, 
Hood was compelled to evacuate Atlanta on the last 
night in August, having destroyed all that was de¬ 
structible of his stores and munitions. Sherman now 
gave his army a month to recruit their powers. Hood 





848 COUNTEIES OF NOETH AMEEICA. f 

tried to recover the post at Allatoona from the Union, 
bat although he fought four men against each one of 
the defenders, he was bloodily repulsed. There was a 
demonstration against Resaca, but no assault, because 
of the nearness of Sherman, and Hood advanced into 
Middle Tennessee, where Thomas, the hero of Chicka- 
mauga, held the state. Sherman gave rest to his army, 
but like a true general, he sought for himself no rest 
while duty remained to be accomplished. Two corps 
were sent to reinforce the Union army at Chattanooga 
and Nashville, and Sherman prepared for his crowning 
exploit. 

43. — Gen. Hood, with a Confederate army of 
45,000 men, nearly one-fourth cavalry, struck for 
Nashville, causing immense destruction of Union 
stores at Johnsonville, Tenn., and increasing his force 
as he advanced. Thomas had posted 80,000 men to 
meet Hood at Pulaski, but the army of the Confeder¬ 
ates was almost twice that number, and Schofield re¬ 
treated with the Union force by Columbia to Franklin, 
where he repulsed the army of Hood with a loss of 
4,500 men, losing about half that number himself, but 
suffering no defeat, nor even the loss of one gun. That 
night Schofield continued his march to Nashville and 
was cofidently followed by Hood. The weather was 
terribly severe. It was now the beginning of Decem¬ 
ber, 1864, and Thomas, shut up in Nashville, was in 
no hurry to move against the intrenchments of the be- 
seigers, until everything was ready. Grant,- distant 
from the scene, was almost angry at the delay ; but all 
was going well for the Confederate arms apparently, 
and Thomas waited until the whole force available on 
that side could be concentrated on Nashville. The 
attack from within commenced on the 15th of Decem¬ 
ber, and within two days an arm}^ had been destroyed. 
Hood barely escaping across the Tennessee at Bain- 
bridge with a wreck of his force and a few guns. 
Thomas had taken 72 guns, nearly 12,000 prisoners, 
and over 2,200 deserters had taken the amnesty oath 


UNITED STATES. 


849 


in that brief interval. Breckenridge had been driven 
into North Carolina. Wytheville, with its lead mines 
and salt works, was in the hands of the Union, and 
East Tennessee had been cleared of Confederate forces. 

44 . — Sherman's ^fARCH to the Sea was an old 
idea which had been cherished by Grant, and it had 
been entered upon as soon as Hood commenced the 
invasion of Tennessee. Ilis force was about 65,000 
when concentrated for his departure on Kingston and 
Rome, in Georgia. The railroads were destroyed, and 
the telegraph lines also, as measures of military pre¬ 
caution ; Atlanta was given to the flames, the work¬ 
shops and storehouses of the South were ruined and 
closed, and the march began. Atlanta, Macon, Mil- 
ledgeville, Millen and Savannah were his successive 
points, but there were no halting places. Cavalry and 
skirmishers clouded the line of march, and terror mag¬ 
nified the strength of the movement, which was strong 
enough to bear down all opposition. Augusta was 
supposed to be the object of his approach, and while 
forces were being concentrated at that point, he struck 
Fort McAllister, on the Ogechee, opening communica¬ 
tion with Uahlgren’s fleet, and compelling Hardee to 
evacuate Savannah. With a loss of little more than 
500 men he had captured 167 guns, 1,328 prisoners, 
and broken the strength of the Confederacy in a wide 
range of country. One month in Savannah gave a 
partial rest to the main body, while Dana, Davidson 
and Grierson raided over ^lississippi and Alabama. 
Leaving a sufficient garrison in Savannah, on the first 
day of February, 1865, Sherman commenced his 
march through the Carolinas, to rejoin Grant, before 
Richmond, where all the forces were now converging, 
to assist Lee, or to aid in his annihilation. The flooded 
swamps were the main obstacles to his career, but 
there was no time to make detours, or build bridges. 
Hardee was forced to evacuate Charleston ; Columbia 
was burned; Kilpatrick, temporarily routed, rallied 
bis troops and beat oli' Wade Hampton’s force, and at 





850 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

Fayetteville Sherman found an army of 40,000 men 
to dispute his line of March. Johnston, chief of the 
Confederate command here, was supported by Hardee, 
Beauregard, Cheatham, Bragg, and the cavalry corps 
of Wheeler and Wade Hampton. There was a halt 
of three days, and then on the 15th of March an ad¬ 
vance. Hardee assailed the left in a narrow pass, but 
was repulsed heavily; and there was no more fighting 
until the 18th, when Johnston with the main body 
struck the right near Bentonville ; but the Confeder¬ 
ates drew off after very considerable losses, and the 
army rested at Goldsboro, while the victorious leader 
consulted with the Lieut. General at City Point, as to 
future movements. Wilmington, N. C., was of trans¬ 
cendent importance to the Confederates, and it had 
been assailed repeatedly by the forces of the Union, 
under Butler and Porter, in November, 1864, and 
under Terry and Porter, in January, 1865, with only 
partial success. Schofield, on the 22d of February, 
reinforcing and outranking Terry, entered Wilming¬ 
ton with 20,000 Unionists, and captured the place, 
with sixty-five guns. When Sherman arrived at 
Goldsboro, Schofield was ready to cooperate with his 
commander. The eclipse of the Confederacy was at 
hand, and darkness was overshadowing every quarter. 

45. — General Canby, commanding at New Or¬ 
leans, moved towards Mobile in the spring of 1865, 
cooperating with Gen. Wilson, and a series of suc¬ 
cesses on their part still further narrowed the area of 
the Confederacy. Forrest was routed ; Montgomery 
and Columbus were taken, with an aggregate of 84 
guns. Fort Tyler was also captured, and at Macon 
operations came to an end because of the news that 
arrived from Virginia. Mobile was evacuated by 
Maury in consequence of Canby's operations, and 150 
guns fell into the hands of the Union at that point. 

46. —End of the War. Lee had under him his 
last army, and he was fighting with the energy of de¬ 
spair, as well as with consummate skill; but there was 


UNITED STATES. 


851 


nothing before him save defeat, with such honor and 
respect as bravery and capacity seldom fail to inspire. 
Early in December, 1864:, Grant’s right had extended 
down the Weldon railroad twenty miles to Hicksford, 
and another fortified post was established at Hatcher’s 
Eun, where early in February, 1865, an assault by the 
Confederates was severely repulsed. Sheridan, in the 
beginning of March, drove Early from Waynesboro, 
taking guns and prisoners, destroyed stores at Char¬ 
lottesville, broke up miles of the Lynchburg and Eich- 
mond railroad, and passing behind Lee’s army, reached 
Grant before Petersburg on the 27th of March. Lee 
made an assault on Fort Stedman on the 25th of that 
month, but the success of the first movement was not 
supported, and it became evident that the Confederate 
General was preparing to abandon his position. The 
affair at Dinwiddie Court House was part of Grant’s 
movement to hem in his opponent, and Lee’s endeavor 
to repeat the lesson of Chancellorsville, met with but 
little success. Five Forks was won under Sheridan 
on the first day of April, with great loss to the Con¬ 
federates, besides tne works that were carried ; and 
now the way was clear for a general assault on Peters¬ 
burg on the following day. Petersburg was gallantly 
carried in spite of the heroism of its defenders, and 
Lee communicated to President Davis that Eichmond 
was no longer tenable. But that he was overruled by 
the President, Lee would have abandoned Eichmond 
much earlier, as his force in the open field could have 
been much more serviceably employed ; but he was a 
soldier, and he bowed to authority. Before the morn¬ 
ing of April 3, 1865, Eichmond had been abandoned, 
Davis and all his staff', official and military, having 
made good their retreat during the night. President 
Lincoln spent the morning in Eichmond, had been at 
City Point at the headquarters of the army the night 
before. The works at Petersburg, not yet carried, 
were abandoned at the same time, and Lee, with all of 
his available force, retreated towards Danville by the 


So2 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

railroad. All over the North and West wherever the 
news could be flashed, joy bells rang out and salutes 
were fired, because none could doubt that the General 
whose genius had brought the Confederacy to its then 
condition, would make the conquest complete. Presi¬ 
dent Davis continued his flight as far as Danville by 
train, as it was important to remove the government 
beyond the probability of capture; but Gen. Lee 
halted for two days at Amelia Court House, 36 miles 
W. S. W. of Richmond, in the hope that he might be 
able to procure sustenance for his 35,000 almost starv¬ 
ing men. The quest was in vain ; the ground had been 
foraged over until there was not one henroost tenanted 
within many miles, and the credit of the Confederate 
government would not purchase fodder for a mule. 
While still engaged in commissariat duty, it became 
known that Grant was in pursuit, and it was necessary to 
consider other measures. Custer’s Horse struck the 
flying host near Sailor’s Creek, and the attack was 
supported by the divisions of Crooks and Davis. That 
day diminished the retreating force by 6,000 prisoners. 
At Farmville, where Lee sought to cross the Appo¬ 
mattox, Gen. Read wdth two regiments barred the 
way ; but his force was insufficient for the task that 
had been undertaken, and Gen. Lee made good his 
passage. Beyond Farmville it. was necessary to turn 
again and fight for the chance of a retreat, and Hum¬ 
phrey’s second corps was repelled with some loss, but 
the delay might have been fatal had not Gen. Grant 
been deceived by the expectation that Lee would 
strike for Danville instead of Lynchburg. Early on 
the 8th, Grant courteously invited the General to sur¬ 
render, and on the same day Sheridan pushed on to 
Appomattox Court House, a march of 28 miles, which 
cut off the retreating army from its last hope of sup¬ 
plies. There was now no possibility of an advance, 
without a battle under every disadvantage, as Grant 
had reinforced Sheridan by a forced march of Griffin’s 
and Ord’s corps during the night; and should the lion 




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♦ 




























































































































































































































































































































UNITED STATES. 


853 


thus taken in the toils of his adversary persist in fight¬ 
ing, he must be struck from all quarters by over¬ 
whelming numbers before the end of the day. Lee 
had answered Grant’s note on the 8th by requesting an 
interview to arrange the terms for peace; but the vic¬ 
torious General could not consent to any such terms, 
and on the 9th he replied, pointing out that he could 
do nothing in that direction beyond accepting his sur¬ 
render. Grant’s tone was such as to command the ad¬ 
miration of all thoughtful and generous men, and Lee 
could not fail to be impressed by the facts to which 
his communications gave force. Still it was his duty 
to keep the field as long as circumstances would per¬ 
mit, with any hope of advantage to the falling cause. 
On the morning of the 9th the starving Confederates 
attempted to resume their march, but the road was 
barred by a cavalry force, and bravely as ever, prepa¬ 
rations were made to remove the obstacle, when, as in 
a tableau the curtain may be drawn to reveal the mys¬ 
tery, the horsemen retired to the flanks, revealing 
solid regiments of infantry drawn up in order of battle, 
against which the famine stricken body nrust hurl it¬ 
self in vain. The merciful demonstration saved un¬ 
necessary and useless bloodshed. A parley was called 
and a surrender followed, each officer and man return¬ 
ing to his home undisturbed by United States author¬ 
ity, so long as their paroles were observed and they 
were obedient to the laws of the Union. Lee’s army 
numbered 27,000 when this submission was made, and 
the other forces of the Confederacy, with ihe exception 
of Gen. E. K. Smith, came in on the same conditions 
with little delay. Gen. Johnston with his army sur¬ 
rendered at Kaleigh, N. C., to Sherman, on the 26th of 
April. Gen. Taylor made his submission to Canby at 
Citronelle, Alabama, on the 4th of May. Smith, who 
was in command west of the Mississippi, believed that 
he could carry on his shoulders the load that had over¬ 
powered the able man whose surrender was compelled 
at Appomattox; but the men under his command 
23 



354 COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

marched each his sev^eral way, carrying as much of 
Confederate property as he could secure, as small in¬ 
stallments toward the never to be paid indebtedness of 
the defunct government Thus the military existence 
of the Confederacy ceased, and its civil power was dy¬ 
ing out at the same moment 

47. — President Jefferson Davis was at Dan¬ 
ville when we last saw him, having retreated to that 
point when Lee made a stand at Amelia Court House. 
One week after his arrival at that point, where he was 
still dreaming of making terms, if he could not secure 
a victory, tidings reached him that Lee had surren¬ 
dered, and that the Confederacy had entirel}^ failed. 
The merciful conditions granted to the crushed armies 
of the rebellion, completing the victories won by force 
of arms, left the defeated President no hope that his 
troops would ever again rally under that standard 
which his hands had unfurled, and which his brain 
had plotted for during many months, if not many years, 
before the rupture between the states. Southward to 
Greensboro, North Carolina, was his next flight, still 
President of the Confederacy, and hoping that his 
presence would infuse new courage into Johnston’s 
army; but a brief halt at that place showed him that 
his fortunes had waned entirely. Johnston, next to 
Lee in point of ability, and in some respects even his 
superior, had common sense enough to perceive that 
the war, continued beyond the stage that had now 
been reached, must be an inexcusable provocation to 
butchery without the remotest chance of success. The 
capitulation of the army in North Carolina was con¬ 
summated on the 26th of April, and before that day, 
Davis was on his way to Washington in the state of 
Georgia, escorted by a cavalry force of about two 
thousand men, which dwindled in numbers at every 
cross road and halting place, and which revealed in 
every action the falling off which the dignity of the ruler 
had suffered. Arrived in Georgia he was no longer 
President of the Confederacy, but simple Jefferson 


UNITED STATES. 


855 


Davis hoping to find safety in flight upon any terms. 
So many millions had suffered from his action that he 
, could not hope for personal safety if he became the 
1 prisoner of tiie north; and yet that was the fate which 
, overtook him, within a few days after his arrival in 

I Georgia, within one month from the assassination of 
Lincoln, and on the fourteenth day after John Wilkes 
Booth was shot for that cruel deed. Jefferson Davis, 
accompanied by a few followers who were content to 
share his altered fortunes, had encamped near Irwin- 
I ville with his family, hoping to make his way to the 
i coast, when two detachments of cavalry, sent out as a 
' patrol in search of the flying President, by Gen. Wil- 
i son, whose headquarters were at Macon, swooped 
; down upon the encampment. He and his family were 
at once conveyed to Savannah, where, of course, his 
family was liberated, but he was conveyed a prisoner 
! to Fortress Monroe and held there for two years. If 
j Mr. Davis had been brought to trial in the North, 
■while his name was yet associated in the minds of 
men with the Surratt-Booth conspiracy and assassina¬ 
tion, it is hardly to be believed that he would have 
escaped ; but the rulers were willing to temper justice 
with mercy, and he remains a monument of such 
mercy as has never been paralled in the case of the 
captured leader of a bloody and unsuccessful rebel¬ 
lion. Two years after the capture, in 1867, there was^ 
a proposal to allow him to go at large on bail, and it 
was not easy to find men who would assume the 
position of bondsmen for him; but Horace Greeley 
magnanimously assumed the responsibility, and the 
quondam President has never been called upon to 
stand a trial. The only executions in consequence of 
the civil war, beyond the range of the battle fields of 
the hostile armies on northern soil, have been the 
hanging of the accomplices of Booth in the cowardly 
and shameful assassination of the Great President; 
and the well deserved execution of the Prison Com¬ 
mandant at Andersonsville, Henry Wirz, whose brutal 





'356 


^^OUNTmES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


'condact to the Union prisoners, during the war, 
merited the worst punishment that humanity could 
devise, as a deterrent against such ruffianism in the 
future. Wirz was tried by a military tribunal, and, 
being found guilty, was executed on the 10th of No¬ 
vember, 1865. 

48. — Confederate Privateering. Naturally 
desiring to preserve the current of affairs on land, and 
on the coast, during the record of the Confederacy, it 
was not possible to interweave therewith the deeds 
'which for a time almost ruined the international com¬ 
merce of the United States; and yet the history of 
■the time, however briefly given, must needs be frag- 
•mentary and incomplete without some notice of those 
Incidents. The proceedings of privateers are seldom 
‘blazoned on the pages of history, but in this instance 
the claims made upon Gfreat Britain for damages re¬ 
sulting to our commerce from the action of ships built, 
fitted and refitted in her ports, have given a world 
wide reputation and notoriety to deeds but little if 
anything above the status of buccaneering. For that 
reason it becomes necessary to trace the doings of the 
privateers that fought and plundered in the name of 
the South from 1861 to 1865. 

49. — The Declaration of War by the Confed¬ 
erate States on the 17th of May, 1861, mainly con¬ 
sisted of an announcement that letters of marque and 
reprisal would be issued against the commerce of the 
United States; and soon after that date, a Confederate 
agent named Bullock, entered into arrangements with 
a lirm in Liverpool, England, to build the vessel after¬ 
wards known as the Florida. There was a formal pre¬ 
tense that the steamer was being built for the Italian 
Government, but her actual ownership and purpose 
were well known. The British Government was on 
several occasions* informed as to the actual facts, by 
the Minister at the Court of St. James, Mr. Adams; 
and the Consul at Liverpool, Mr. Dudley, continuous¬ 
ly represented each successive step in the proper quar- 



UNITED STATES. 


357 


ter, but without avail. There was uo such speed in 
the movements of the builders as to prevent action 
on the part of the government; but in reality, at that 
time, the ministry was well inclined towards the Con¬ 
federacy, and would not make an effort to serve the 
cause of the Union. The Florida, being completed, 
sailed on the 23d of March, 1862, nearly the whole 
crew being British, and only one an American, and 
her destination was Nassau, N. P. Another vessel, 

I w'hich sailed about the same time as the Florida, car- 
: ried her shot, shells and ammunition to Nassau, where 
they were taken on board a schooner, and subse¬ 
quently transhipped. So complete had been the 
preparation in Liverpool, that wuthin twenty-four 
' hours after that shipment, the Florida was ready for 
' sea as a w^ar vessel. The Florida commenced her 
I ravages against our mercantile marine at once, burn¬ 
ing, scuttling and otherwise destroying unarmed ves¬ 
sels at sea, because there was no port into which they 
could be taken to be sold as prizes. Three of the 
vessels captured by the Florida were fitted up as ten¬ 
ders, and rendered aid in the destruction of our ships, 
always carefully avoiding contact with armed vessels. 
On the fourth of September, 1862, the Florida having 
hoisted the English flag, and pretending to be a Brit¬ 
ish man of war, ran through the blockading squadron, 
into Mobile, escaping thence on the 26th of January, 
1863, and continuing her career in the service of the 
enemy until Oct. 7, 1864,' within which time many 
millions of dollars in value were captured and de¬ 
stroyed by this ship and her armed tenders, the Clar¬ 
ence, the Archer and the Tacony. In the presence of 
the ships of the United States, the Florida showed 
false flags and false papers, so that there was but little 
chance for the suppression of her infamous system of 
licensed piracy. The complicity of Great Britain in 
the fact of her being built in an English port and re¬ 
fitted at several different times under the flag of that 
nation, was clearly made out before the High Com¬ 
mission at Geneva on the Alabama claims. 





858 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


50. — The Alabama Cruiser was built for the 
Confederate government by Laird & Sons, at Birken¬ 
head, and pierced for twelve guns. In this case, as in 
that of the Florida, proper representations were made 
to the British government, but without such results as 
would prove the strict neutrality of that power. The 
minister at the Court of St. James did not cease to im¬ 
portune Downing Street, the official home of the Eng¬ 
lish government, to procure vigorous action, which 
would have prevented the sailing of the vessel; but 
the utmost good attained was a reference of the case to 
the Attorney General for an opinion on the law, and 
when that folly had been leisurely enacted, the vessel 
had taken her departure, under the pretense that she 
was only making a trial trip. As in the former case 
the ship was not armed at the time of her departure, 
but she was prepared for armament, and the requisites 
to complete her equipment were forwarded to Terciera. 
Capt. Semmes took command in August, 1862, and 
from that time to the end of the' ship’s career the com¬ 
merce of this country suffered from her depredations. 
The Alabama never ventured into a Confederate port, 
as her captain knew the dangers that might beset him 
before he could regain the open seas. It is claimed 
that he captured sixty-five vessels, burning nearly all, 
with such parts of the cargoes as could not be easily 
appropriated, and the total value of the property de¬ 
stroyed by him is stated at $6,000,000. Besides that 
enormous aggregate of loss, there was a still greater 
item distributed over the enhanced cost of shipments 
and rates of insurance which taxed the whole commu¬ 
nity. The Pacific Ocean was the favorite cruising 
ground of Capt. Semmes, and the strength of his arma¬ 
ment niade him a terror to merchant vessels, so that he 
at length arrived at the opinion that he was invincible. 
Laboring under that idea the Captain found an oppor¬ 
tunity to submit his belief to the crucial test of experi¬ 
ment in June 1864. The Alabama was at that time 
lying in Cherbourg refitting, after a prolonged cruise 


UNITED STATES. 


859 


in the Pacific, when the United States war steamer 
Kearsarge, under the command of Capt. Winslow, ar¬ 
rived in that port, and Semmes challenged him to fight. 
The Kearsarge carried only seven guns, but she carried 
a commander and crew fully competent to use them, 
and the challenge was immediately accepted. The 
fight came off on the 19th of June, and there were 
many spectators of the engagement, such a duel being 
a rare spectacle anywhere. From the first onset it was 
evident that seamanship was on the side of the Kear¬ 
sarge, and that long usage among merchant ships and 
other unarmed or partly unarmed craft had not given 
precision to Capt. Semmes’ appreciation of naval tactics. 
While the vessels were still quite a mile from each 
other, the guns of the Alabama were fired wildly, in 
rapid succession, without the least chance of damage 
to the Kearsarge, but greatly risking the yachts and 
other vessels which had assembled to enjoy the display. 
On. board the Kearsarge there was the coolness and 
reserve of men fully aware of the importance of their 
duty, and resolved to accomplish all that was possible 
under the circumstances. The steamers described cir¬ 
cles about an always changing center, firing all the 
time after they had come within range, as rapidly as 
the guns could be loaded and run out. Three men killed 
and wounded on board the Kearsarge showed the skill 


in gunnery possessed by the Alabama crew, and the 
qualities of the Kearsarge men were proved by ten times 
that amount of damage in the Confederate steamer. 
Thirty men killed and w’ounded in one case against 
three in the other cannot be explained except on the 
hypothesis of the greater coolness, skill and efficiency 
of the United States service. Seven circles had been 
described by the Alabama when the white flag was run 
up; the infamous cruiser was sinking and the Kear¬ 
sarge ceased firing to save life. Sixty-five prisoners 
were taken on board the Kearsarge before the Ala¬ 
bama went to the bottom; but unfortunately Capt. 
Winslow requested the English yacht Deerhound to 



860 COUNTRIES OE NORTH AMERICA. 

assist in rescuing the men who were in danger of death, 
and Semmes, taking refuge in that vessel, was carried 
to England. International law assumes that a ship is 
a part of the nation from which she hails, and in con¬ 
sequence a person once on board of an English vessel 
occupied a position just as unassailable as though he 
trod the soil of that country. The fact was none the 
less greatly to be regretted. The depredations of the 
Alabama were duly considered and awarded upon at 
Geneva. 

51. — The Georgia ran a much shorter carreer. 
She was built on the Clyde in Scotland, for the Con¬ 
federates, and sailed early in 1868, after some abortive 
and tardy steps on the part of the English govern¬ 
ment to prevent her departure. The consular and 
diplomatic service of the country did all that was pos¬ 
sible to secure prompt vindication of the neutrality, 
which Great Britain claimed to be observing. Like 
the other vessels named, she was not armed when leav¬ 
ing Great Britain, but arms, ammunition and equip¬ 
ments were sent to meet her off the French coast, in 
another vessel, and immediately after the transfer was 
effected, she commenced her course of spoliation. 
Twelve months later the Georgia returned to Liver¬ 
pool and was there disposed of by the Confederate 
agents, in spite of the protests of Mr. Adams in Lon¬ 
don, but a better method of operation was discovered 
after the sale had been effected, as the United States 
cruiser Niagara took possession of her soon after she 
again left port. 

52. — The Shenandoah was the British steamer 
Sea King, and engaged in the India trade, but hav¬ 
ing been purchased by the Confederacy, she sailed in 
ballast from Bombay in October, 1864, and met at 
Funchal, the capital of ^Madeira, another vessel which 
supplied her with all the munitions of war and a 
Confederate crew under the command of Capt. Wad¬ 
dell. Most of the original crew refused to serve in 
her as a Confederate cruiser and she sailed consequen- 


UNITED STATES. 


861 


ly with only half her complement from Funchal. In 
January, 1865, the Shenandoah arrived in Melbourne, 
the port and capital of Victoria, where her character 
as a Confederate cruiser procured high encomiums 
from an aristocratic minority of the population, but 
strong disapproval from the intelligence and strength 
of the colony ; in obedience to which the colonial 
government refused to permit enlistments in that port 
or any coaling and refitting beyond what was consist¬ 
ent with neutrality. The orders vigorously made, 
were not efficiently executed, and in consequence, the 
subsequent ravages of the Shenandoah among the un¬ 
armed whaling vessels in the Arctic regions were 
charged against England by the High Commission 
which sat in Geneva. In the region selected for her 
operations. United States cruisers were not likely to be 
met, and she continued her career for several months 
after the Confederate government had succumbed. 
The Shenandoah arrived in Liverpool on the 6th of 
November, 1865, and was at once taken possession of 
by the British Government, being subsequently hand¬ 
ed over to the United States. It will be seen at once 
that there was little honor or glory in such nefarious 
exploits as were the chief aims of the so called Con¬ 
federate Privateers. 

58. — The Sumter, Tallahassee, Chickamauga, 
Nashville and Ketribution were fitted out in Confed¬ 
erate ports, and therefore incurred some danger before 
they were able to take part in the abominable system 
of privateering, which probably will be banished from 
the war code of civilized nations before many years 
have passed away. Our blockading squadrons are 
supposed to have captured in all 1,500 vessels attempt¬ 
ing to run the blockade of the several ports from the 
beginning to the end of the war. Upon the coast, and 
wherever legitimate fighting was to be done, the Navy 
was equal to the occasion; but the destruction of un¬ 
armed vessels pursuing a legitimate vocation, was no 
part of their work. Viewed even on the low plane of 





362 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

material success, the Confederacy gained nothing from 
its letters of marque, and if the commerce of the loyal 
states was injured by the war, that of the South was 
absolutely destroyed. There was only one instance in 
which the Confederate Navy showed a marked superi¬ 
ority over ours, and that was in Hampton Roads, on 
the day in which the Virginia Ram, originally the 
Merrimack, ran into and sank the Cumberland. Even 
then the superiority was not manifest more than twen¬ 
ty-four hours, when the Monitor, arriving on her trial 
trip, crippled and compelled the retreat of the much 
larger vessel. In both arms of the service the United 
States had ample cause to be proud of her defenders; 
but in the Navy the superiority of our force never per¬ 
mitted of a doubt from the hour when the ships could 
be brought back from the distant stations to which 
they had been disloyally dispatched previous to Lin¬ 
coln’s inauguration. 

54. —The Alabama Claims arbitrated upon at 
Geneva, upon which the High Commission awarded to 
this country the sum of $15,500,000, have established 
a new feature in international law which hereafter will 
secure in the ports of neutral powers an absolute neu¬ 
trality, such as has never before been obtained ; and 
the fact that the English government has become more 
just and conciliatory in its bearing toward this coun¬ 
try, in proportion as political power has passed more 
and more into the hands of the people, must be accept¬ 
ed as an evidence that whatever may be the feeling of 
the aristocratic class in that nation, the great mass of 
the community fully recognizes and upholds the duty 
of the two great English speaking nations to work cor- - 
dially together in the interests of humanity, now and 
forever, as men of one race, with a great destiny in 
common. 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 


863 


BRITISH AMERICA. 


Extent.— The British possessions in America com¬ 
prise the whole northern part of North America, north 
of the territory owned by the United States, except 
Alaska, formerly Russian America. The territory ex¬ 
tends from latitude 41° to 78° north, and from longi¬ 
tude 52° to 141° west. It is bounded on the east by 
the Atlantic Ocean, Davis’ Straits and Baffin’s Bay; 
north by the Arctic Ocean, northwest by the Territory 
of Alaska ; west by the Pacific Ocean, and south by the 
United States. It embraces the provinces or colonies 
of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, 
New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland, 
British Columbia, Manitoba, the Northwestern Terri¬ 
tory, Hudson’s Bay Territory and Labrador. Besides 
these political divisions, the British possessions in 
America may be said to include British Guiana, the 
West Indies, etc. 

THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

Extent.— The Dominion of Canada is a partial 
dependency of the British Empire, and will, in all 
probability, eventually include all the American pos¬ 
sessions of Great Britain lying north of the United 
States. The Dominion, in contradistinction to the 
forms of government existing in the provinces pre¬ 
viously, was founded in 1867, by the union of the 
provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and New 
Brunswick. In 1872, the provinces of Manitoba, British 
Columbia and the Northwest Territory were added, 
and in 1873, Prince Edward Island was admitted, 
leaving only Newfoundland outside the Dominion in 
1873. 




864 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


I. BOUNDARIES. 

1. — The Dominion of Canada is bounded on the 
south by the United States, on the east by the At¬ 
lantic, on the north by the Arctic Ocean, and on the 
west by Alaska and the Pacific Ocean. A part of the 
southern boundary is formed by Lakes Superior, Huron, 
Erie and Ontario. The line which divides the country 
from the State of Maine was not determined until 
1843, and the long pending discussion between Great 
Britain and the United States, as to the island of San 
Juan, in the Pacific, Wcis not decided until 1872. The 
matter was referred to the Emperor of Germany. In 
1872 the area of the Dominion was estimated at 3,389,- 
442 square miles, being nearly equal to that of the 
United States. 

II. SURFACE. 

1. — Ontario and Quebec. The St. Lawrence river 
is one of the finest in the world. It is difficult to give 
any well defined line dividing this noble river from 
the gulf bearing its name into which it enters; at 
some points this river has a width of forty miles, at 
others it contracts to one mile. It has three outlets, 
the principal of which lies between Cape Breton and 
Newfoundland; the narrowest is the Gut of Canso, 
which divides Cape Breton from Nova Scotia; the 
third consisting of the Straits of Belle Isle, dividing 
the Labrador coast from Newfoundland. The St. 
Lawrence is navigable for seagoing vessels as far as 
Montreal, a distance of 600 miles. Above Montreal 
there are several extensive rapids, which can be de¬ 
scended by the largest steamers that traverse the great 
lakes; but as no force of steam can overcome the 
strength of these rapids, canals have been constructed 
near the sides of the river, enabling steamers to ascend. 
The canals, with that intended to overcome the Falls 
of Niagara, the Welland, have been constructed at a 
cost of over $14,000,000 by the government of Can¬ 
ada. By the aid of these canals and that constructed 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 


365 


at Sault Ste. Marie between Lakes Huron and Supe¬ 
rior, vessels may descend from the head of the latter 
lake to the ocean. Vessels have sailed from Chicago 
to Liverpool. Lake Ontario is a beautiful inland sea, 
having a length of 180 miles, a breadth of 60 and a cir¬ 
cumference of 500 miles. It has an average depth of 
500 feet. Lake Erie has a length of 280 miles, a 
breadth of 68, a circumference of 700 and an average 
' depth of 250 feet. Lake Huron has a length of 252 
miles, a breadth of 190 miles and an average depth of 
860 feet. Lake Superior, the largest of the chain, has 
a length of 360 miles, a breadth of 140 miles, a circum¬ 
ference of 1.500 miles and an average depth of 1,000 
feet. Lakes Ontario and Erie are connected hy the 
Hiagara River; Lakes Erie and Huron are connected 
by tlie Detroit River or Strait and the River and Lake 
St. Clair; Lakes Huron and Superior are connected 
by the Sault Ste. IMarie. 

2. — Over the interior of Ontario and Quebec, lakes 
! of smaller size are profusely scattered ; even in the 
most rugged parts of Quebec the mountains are fre¬ 
quently cleft by rivers, and bear beautiful little lakes 
upon their summits. The more level parts of Ontario 
abound in creeks and rivers. Next to the St. Law¬ 
rence, the Ottawa, one of its tributaries, is the largest 
river in Canada. It has a length of about 680 miles, 
and drains, by the aid of tributaries, an area of nearly 
80,000 square miles. This valley is one of the most 
extensive pineries in Canada. The wddth of the Otta¬ 
wa is very irregular, and in many places it is lost in 
the lakes through which it runs. In one place, for 
over forty miles, it has an irregular width of from one 
to ten miles; in other places it is much the same. 
Along its course, the Ottawa presents many portages 
where the waters expand to a width of over fifty yards 
and are precipitated over rocks, sometimes forming 
beautiful cascades. The Ottawa has been made navi¬ 
gable in stretches, by the construction of canals to 
overcome falls or rapids, a considerable distance above 
Ottawa City. 





866 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

3. — The third great navigable river of Canada is 
the Saguenay. At its entrance is the ancient port of 
Tadousac, which had become very popular in Europe, 
before Quebec was founded. The mouth of the river 
is further down the St. Lawrence than Quebec, hence 
it was frequently visited by the early French explorers. 
The average width of the river is about three-fourths 
of a mile. Its banks are high and precipitous, and 
present a picture of rare grandeur. It is navigable for 
seventy-five miles from its mouth. The St. Maurice, 
which falls into the St. Lawrence from the north, at 
three rivers, is navigable for a short distance from its 
mouth only, when navigation is interrupted for forty- 
four miles; then there is another navigable stretch of 
seventy-five miles, on which steamers run. Lumber¬ 
ing has been conducted on this river a distance of 150 
miles from its mouth, and in furtherance of this inter¬ 
est, its tributaries have been surveyed through an area 
of over 14,000 square miles. The valley drained by 
this river is very extensive. 

4. — The Betisamite, situated below the Saguenay, 
is also a large tributary of the St. Lawrence, flowing 
from the north. It is navigable for light crafts. The 
Eideau Eiver, which falls into Lake Ontario at Kings¬ 
ton, was made navigable as far as Ottowa City, for 
mititary purposes, by the aid of the Eideau Canal. 
This was accomplished at a cost of $7,500,000, but 
the canal has since fallen into disuse. The Peninsula 
of Upper Canada, though well watered by a large 
number of small streams, has no navigable rivers. 
The Thames, which falls into Lake St. Clair, is navig¬ 
able for small crafts as far as Chatham, a distance of 
over eighty miles. By artificial aid, the Grand Eiver, 
which falls into Lake Erie, has been made navigable 
for small vessels as far as Brantford. Lake Simcoe 
lies north of Toronto, forming the eastern limit of the 
Peninsula. It is forty miles long and thirty wide, and 
has an average depth of 126 feet. It is connected by 
means of the river Severn with Georgian Bay. There 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 867 

are several small rivers which flow into Lake Huron. 
Of these the Spanish Kiver is the largest. 

5. — The province is traversed throughout its entire 
length by a chain of mountains which divides the 
country into two great basins, that on the north 
being the largest in the east, .and that in the south 
being the largest in the western part. This range is 
called the Laurentian Mountains. The mountains on 
the south of the St. Lawrence reach an elevation of 
8,768 feet, while the highest peaks of the chain just 
mentioned reach to a hight of from 4,000 to 5,000 feet. 
This elevation is found between Quebec and Lake St. 
John, “but this is at a point where the rivers, includ¬ 
ing the Jacques Cartier, are 3,000 feet above the level 
of the St. Lawrence.” 

III. EARLY HISTORY. 

French Canada. lOOS-1706. 

1 .— The voyages of Cartier, Roberval and Cham¬ 
plain, carry us through an account of the efforts of 
discovery put forth by France to colonize the territory 
bordering the St. Lawrence. The latter, sailing as 
the Lieutenant of D.e Monts, became the founder of 
Quebec in 1608. Champlain found the country in 
possession of a powerful aboriginal nation, called the 
Algonquins. During the first winter which he passed 
at his newly established post, he engaged in the work 
of concluding a treaty with the natives, in which he 
was successful. The Indians agreed to assist Cham¬ 
plain in conducting an expedition through the country 
of the Iroquois, and the powerful Indian nation with 
which the newly made friends of Champlain were in 
constant war, on the conditions that the French would 
lend a helping hand in their general cause. In agree¬ 
ing to their proposals, Champlain seems not to have 
dreamed of provoking a war with the Iroquois, but, in 
the spring of 1609, when he, with two of his country¬ 
men and a strong guard of his Indian allies pene¬ 
trated their country, he was met with a bold front. In 




368 COUXTEIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

the battle which followed, the enemy was routed, 
being awed at the havoc made by the unknown 
instruments of destruction in the hands of the French. 
When Champlain returned from this expedition he 
met sad news. The merchants of France had de¬ 
claimed against the monopoly of the fur trade vested 
in De Monts, by which the- commission of the latter 
was revoked, and Champlain was recalled. On reach¬ 
ing France he gave a full and satisfactory account of 
the new country to the king, but was unable, even 
through persistent urgency, to obtain a renewal of the 
monopoly. But his zeal for extending his colony was 
not checked by this refusal. He formed a league with 
some traders of Eochelle in 1610, and returned to 
America with a considerable reinforcement and with 
fresh supplies. 

2. — CJpon his return to the newly founded colony, 
he again set out with a party of Algonquins against 
the Iroquois, in which he repeated his former success. 
“ Before taking leave of his allies, he prevailed on 
them to allow one of their young men to accompany 
him to France, while at the same time a Frenchman 
remained to learn the language of the Indians. Hav¬ 
ing again visited France, in 1611, he returned with the 
Indian youth, whom he designed to employ as inter¬ 
preter between the French and their allies. Y/hile 
awaiting an appointment which he had made with his 
savage friends, he passed the time in selecting a place 
for a new settlement, higher up the river than Quebec. 
After a careful survey, he fixed upon a spot on the 
southern border of a beautiful island, inclosed by the 
divided channel of the St. Lawrence, cleared a consid¬ 
erable space, inclosed it by an earthen wall, and 
sowed some grain. From an eminence in the vicinity 
which he named Mont Koyal, the place has since been 
called Montreal.” 

3. —But the great pioneer again found it necessary 
to visit his native country, this time for the purpose 
of laying a secure foundation for the execution of his 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 


869 


gigantic plans of colonization, wbicli he recommended 
to his Indian allies. “ He was so fortunate,” says 
Marcus Wilson, “as almost immediately to gain the 
favor of the Count de Soissons, who obtained the title 
of Lieutenant General of New France, and who, by a 
formal agreement, delegated to Champlain all the func¬ 
tions of that high office. The Count dying soon after, 
the Prince of Conde succeeded to all the privileges of 
the deceased, and transferred them to Champlain, on 
terms equally liberal. As his commission included a 
monopoly of the fur trade, the merchants were, as 
usual, loud in their complaints ; but he endeavored to 
remove their principal objections, by allowing such as 
chose to accompany him to engage freely in the trade, 
on condition that each should furnish six men to assist 
in his projects of discovery, and contribute a twentieth 
of the profits to defray the expenses of settlement.” 
But on Champlain’s return to New France, he was di¬ 
verted from his grand scheme by an effort to discover 
the long hoped for passage to China in the northwest, 
“A Frenchman,” says the same author, “who had 
spent a winter among the northern savages, reported 
that the river of the Algonquins (the Ottawa) issued 
from a lake which was connected with the North Sea, 
that he had visited its shores, had there seen the wreck 
of an English vessel, and that one of the crew was 
still living with the Indians. Eager to ascertain the 
truth of this statement, Champlain determined to de¬ 
vote a season to the prosecution of this grand object, 
and with only four of his countrymen, among whom 
was the author of the report and one native, he com¬ 
menced his voyage by the dangerous and almost im¬ 
passable route of the Ottawa Kiver.” This party, after 
traveling to within eight days’ journey of the lake 
upon which the shipwreck was said to have occurred, 
discovered the falsity of the Frenchman’s report 
through the testimony of the friendly tribe with whom 
he had previously lived, and fearing just punishment, 
he confessed that all he had said was untrue. His 
24 




870 


COUNTEIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


motive in making the statement was to give notoriety 
to himself, believing that the party could not pene¬ 
trate the eountry and discover his deception. 

4.—Champlain, having once more visited France, 
and returned to the colony with additional forces, and 
being ever ready to engage in warlike enterprises 
with his Indian allies, planned, in connection with 
them, another expedition against the Iroquois. This 
time it wms determined to march against them in the 
lake region. The party started from Montreal and 
traversed the course of the Ottawa for some distance, 
thence overland to Lake Huron, where they were re¬ 
inforced by some Huron bands, who regarded the 
Iroquois as a common enemy. On the banks of Lake 
George they found the Iroquois in their fortifications. 
“ The Iroquois at first, advanced and met tlieir assail¬ 
ants in front of the fortifications, but the wdiizzing 
balls from the firearms soon drove them within the 
ramparts, and, finally, from all the outer defenses. 
They continued, however, to pour forth showers of 
arrows and stones, and fought wdth such bravery that, 
in spite of all the exertions of the few French and 
their allies, it w^as found impossible to drive them 
from their stronghold.” In the first assault, Cham¬ 
plain lost some of his native warriors, and he was him¬ 
self severely wmunded twice. After several days in 
fruitless attempts to dislodge the Iroquois, the French 
and Indians were compelled to retire: but,. Lorn the 
dishonesty and indisp)osition of his allies, Champlain 
was obliged to spend the winter in the country of the 
Hurons, being unable to obtain guides and facilities 
to make the return journey. But in the following 
spring (1615), he was enabled to leave that region. 
He sailed for France soon after, and reached his native 
country in September of the same year. “The inter¬ 
ests of the colony were now for some time much neg¬ 
lected, owing to the unsettled state of France during 
the minority of Louis XIII, and it was not until 1620 
that Champlain was enabled to return, with a new 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 


871 


equipment, litted out by an association of merchants. 
])uring his absence the settlements had been consid¬ 
erably neglected, and, after all that laid been done for 
the colony, there remained, when winter set in, not 
! more than sixty inhabitants, of all ages.” 

I 5. — In the spring of 1621, the association of mer- 
1 chants which had fitted out the last expedition was 
I deprived of all its privileges. De Caen was sent out 
' as Governor of the colony, and the power of Cham¬ 
plain was for a time suspended. “Idie violent and 
' arbitrary proceedings of the new Governor, however, 
caused much dissatisfaction, in consequence of which 
a great part of the population connected with the Eu¬ 
ropean traders took their departure. De Caen soon 
after returning to France, the powers of government 
again fell into the hands of Champlain, who turned 
his attention to discoveries and .settlements in the in¬ 
terior.” Champlain, soon after his restoration, nego¬ 
tiated a treaty between the Iroquois and Hurons which, 
for a short time only, put a stop to the war between 
those nations. From 1622 to 1627, and even later, the 
j)rogress of the colony in New France was checked by 
the war between the Catholics and Protestants iir 
Europe, which extended also to America. In the lat¬ 
ter year, however, war broke out between England 
and France, and two Calvinists — refugees from^ 
France — David and Lewis Kirk, enlisted in the- 
British service, and engaged in an expedition against 
the French settlements in America. The squadron, 
under the command of these men, sailed to the mouth 
of the St Lawrence, captured several vessels, and cut 
off all communication between New France and the 
mother country. Port Poyal and other French settle¬ 
ments in that vicinity soon fell into the hands of the 
English, and, in July, 1629, Sir David Kirk demanded 
the surrender of Quebec. The post, being weakened, 
yielded, and now the French possessions in America 
fell into the hands of the English. But these events 
had scarcely taken place in the new world when, in 




^372 eOlTNTHlES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

the old, articles of peace had been signed which pro¬ 
mised the restitution of all the conquests made previ¬ 
ous to April 14, 1829; and, by the final treaty of 
March, 1632, France was restored to a possession of 
her American colonies — not only of New France, but 
of all Acadia. 

0. — No sooner was the French authority peacefully 
reextended over New France, than Champlain was re- 
•invested with his former jurisdiction, which he worth¬ 
ily maintained till his death in 1636. lie was suc- 
'ceeded by Montmagny, whose situation was rendered 
•critical by the dangerous attitude of the Indians. The 
war with the indomitable Iroquois had broken out 
with greater fury than ever. The French, being them¬ 
selves weakened, were unable to render their Algon¬ 
quin friends any assistance; hence they were hum¬ 
bled; the Ilurons were also sorely pressed, and of 
course the French settlemients were in danger. The 
Governor, however, succeeded in effecting another 
treaty, and for a time it was observed in comparative 
peace. During this partial peace on the borders, the 
missionaries formed establishments not only at Quebec 
and Montreal, but penetrated far into the interior, es¬ 
tablishing missionary posts, collecting the natives iii 
villages, and converting them to the Catholic faith by 
thousands. Upwards of three thousand Ilurons are 
recorded to have been baptized at one time, and 
though it was easier to make converts than to retain 
them, yet many were for a time reclaimed from their 
savage habits, and very favorable prospects were 
opened. But this period of repose was soon ended, 
the Iroquois having, in 1648, again determined to re¬ 
new the war, and, as it is asserted, without any known 
cause or pretext whatever. 

7. — However, the blow was effectual, and the fury 
of the invincible Iroquois was felt throughout Canada. 
“The frontier settlements of the French were attacked 
with the most fatal precision, and their inhabitants, 
without distinction of age or sex, involved in indis 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 


873 


criminate slaughter. The Hurons were everywhere 
defeated; aivi their country, lately so peaceable and 
flourishing, became a land of horror and of blood. 
The whole Huron nation, with one consent, dispersed, 
and fled for refuge in every direction. A few after¬ 
wards reluctantly united with their conqucrers; the 
greater number sought an asylum among the Chippe- 
was of Lake Superior ; while a small remnant sought 
the protection of the French at Quebec. The Iroquois 
having completely overrun Canada, the French were 
virtually blockaded in the three forts of Quebec, Three 
Livers and Montreal: and almost every autumn, bands 
of hostile invaders swept away the limited harvests 
raised in the immediate vicinity of these places. Yet 
again this fierce people, as if satiated with blood, began 
of their own accord to make overtures of peace, and to 
solicit the missionaries to teach them the Christian doc¬ 
trine. In 1656 a French settlement, connected with a 
mission, was actuall}^ established in the territoiy of the 
Onondagas. This establishment, however, was of short 
continuance, for as the other confederate tribes disap¬ 
proved of the measure, the French were obliged to 
withdraw. In 1658 the French were compelled to ac¬ 
cept humiliating terms of peace, yet even by these 
means they obtained but little repose. Often, while 
peace was proclaimed at one station, war raged at 
another. At length, in 1668, it was announced that 
deputies from the different cantons of the Iroquois 
were on their way to Montreal, with the professed in¬ 
tention of burying the hatchet so deep that it should 
never again be dug up, and of planting the tree of 
peace, whose branches should overshadow the wliole 
land. But unhappil}^ a party of Algonquins, stung 
by accumulated wrongs, and resolving on vengeance, 
determined to violate even the sacred character of such 
a mission, and having an ambuscade, killed nearly all 
the party.” With this indiscreet blow all hopes of 
peace disappeared, and the froquois renewed the war. 

— Everywhere before them they sent dismay, and 


374 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


behind them they left only devastation and conquest. 
The Algonquin allies of* the French either fled or were 
slain, with not so much as an attempt at resistance. 
While these Indians were extending their conquest, the 
French were helpless within their forts, fearing to ven¬ 
ture out in defense of their allies. At length, harassed 
by the menaces of the savages, the Governor visited 
France to procure aid, but was able to obtain but one 
hundred men. During these extreme hardships a 
series of earthquakes occurred in New France, com¬ 
mencing in February, 1663, and continuing for about 
six months, spreading consternation and alarm through¬ 
out the colony. In 1665, the Marquis de Tracy came 
to Canada as Governor, bringing with him quite a large 
number of emigrants and a regiment of soldiers. He 
proceeded to erect three forts on the river Richelieu 
(now the Sorel), and to conduct several well formed ex¬ 
peditions into the country of the Iroquois, effectually 
checking their insolence, and for a time the colony en¬ 
joyed comparative peace. 

9. — De Tracy was succeeded by M. de Courcelles, 
during whose administration the French power was ex¬ 
tended to the interior of Canada and on the upper parts 
of the St. Lawrence. “A settlement of Hurons, under 
the Jesuit Marquette, was established on the Island 
of Michilimackinac, between Lakes Huron and Michi¬ 
gan, a situation very favorable to the fur trade; and 
the site for a fort was selected at Cataraqui, on Lake 
Ontario, near the present village of Kingston, an ad¬ 
vantageous point for the protection of the trading in¬ 
terests, and for holding the Five Nations in awe. 
Count Frontenac, the successor of De Courcelles, im¬ 
mediately upon his accession, caused the fort at Catar¬ 
aqui to be completed, and It has often, from him, been 
called Fort Frontenac.” This Governor conducted the 
affairs of the colony in an energetic but haughty man¬ 
ner for a period of ten years, when he was recalled, 
and M. De la Barre appointed in his stead, in 1684. 
The latter at first made a show of carrying on the war 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 


875 


with considerable energy, and crossed Lake Ontario 
with a large force, when, being met by deputies from 
the Five Nations, he thought it most prudent to yield 
to their terms, and withdraw his army. The home 
government being dissatisfied with the issue of this 
campaign, the Governor was immediately recalled, 
and, in 1685, was succeeded by the Marnuis Denon* 
ville, who enjoyed the reputation of being a brave and 
active officer. 

10. — Whatever may have been Denonville’s preten¬ 
sions, it is evident that his intentions were to pun¬ 
ish the hostile savages. “ Having, under various pre¬ 
texts allured a number of chiefs to meet him on the 
banks of Lake Ontario, he secured them and sent them 
to France as trophies, and afterwards they were sent 
as slaves to the galleys. This base stratagem kindled 
the flame of war, and each party prepared to carry it 
on to the utmost extremity. Denonville was already 
prepared, and with a force of 800 French regulars, and 
1300 Canadians and savages, he embarked from Cata- 
raqui, for the entrance of the Genesee river. Imme¬ 
diately after landing he constructed a military defense, 
in which he left a guard of 400 men, while with the main 
body of his .forces he advanced upon the principal 
town of the Senecas.” When he was within a short 
distance of the village, approaching it, he was attacked 
in front and rear by a heavy force of the enemy. His 
troops were at first thrown into confusion, and for a 
time the battle was fierce and bloody, but the Iroquois 
were finally repulsed, and did not again make their 
appearance in the field. Denonville afterwards 
marched upon their villages, intending to destroy them, 
but they had already been laid in ashes by the re¬ 
treating Senecas. Some fields of corn were destryoed, 
but Denonville was unable to do the enemy much dam¬ 
age. On his return he stopped at Niagara, where he 
erected a small fort, in which he left a garrison of 100 
men. But the expedition had no sooner returned than 
the Indians beseiged forts Niagara and Cataraqui. 




876 


COUNTEIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


The former was abandoned after nearly all the garri¬ 
son had perished from hunger. The Indian cause now 
prospered, and had the Indians been acquainted with 
the arts of war, they might have driven the French 
from the colony. As it was, the governor, in 1688, 
was compelled to submit to the most humiliating 
terms, and to send a request to France for the return 
of the chiefs, whom he had captured and sent to that 
far-off country. 

11, — The treaty thus made was almost immediately 
broken, by the Iroquois, who were now so exasperated 
as to seize upon the slightest pretext for war. Among 
their more desperate onslaughts was that upon the 
Island of Montreal, which they devastated, carrying 
off 200 prisoners. In the most critical hour, Denon- 
ville was recalled and Count Frontenac reappointed 
governor. He reached the colony in 1689 and at¬ 
tempted to conclude a peace with the Iroquois, but 
they were too much elated over their own victories, to 
listen to any proposal, hence the governor prepared for 
war. “ As France and England,” says Marcus Wil¬ 
son,” “were now engaged in war, in consequence of the 
English revolution of 1688, Frontenac resolved to 
strike the first blow against the English, on whose sup¬ 
port the enemy so strongly relied. In 1690 he fitted 
out three expeditions, one against iSTew York, a second 
against New Hampshire, and a third against the pro¬ 
vince of Maine. The party destined for New York, 
fell upon Corlaer or Schenectady, and completely sur¬ 
prised, pillaged and burned the place. The second party 
burned the village of Salmon Falls, on the borders of 
New Hampshire, and the third destroyed the settlement 
of Casco, in Maine. The old allies of the French, reas¬ 
sured by these successes, began to resume their former 
energy — the remote post of Mlchilimackinac was 
strengthened, and the French were gradually gaining 
ground, when, from a new quarter, a storm arose 
which threatened the very existence of their power in 
America. The northern English colonies, roused by 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 


877 


the atrocities of the French and their savage allies, 
hastily prepared two expeditions against the French, 

I one by sea from Boston against Quebec, and the other 
by land from New York against Montreal. The first, 
under Sir William Phipps, captured all the French 
posts in Acadia and Newfoundland, with several on 
the St. Lawrence, and had arrived within a few days’ 
sail of Quebec before any tidings of its approach had 
been received. The fortifications of the city were 
hastily strengthened, and when the summons to sur- 
! render was received, it was returned with a message of 
I defiance. After an unnecessary delay of two days, a 
I landing was effected, but the attacks both by land and 
by water were alike unsuccessful, and the English 
were finally reduced to the mortifying necessity of 
abandoning the place, and leaving their cannon and 
ammunition in the hands of the enemy. The expedi¬ 
tion against Montreal was alike unsuccessful. In 1691, 
the settlements on the Sorel were attacked by the 
Mohawks and English under the command of Major 
Schuyler, who, after making hard attempts were com¬ 
pelled to withdraw. This left the Grovernor of New 
France without any fears for the safety of the colony. 

12. — Several years of political strife now ensued, 
but when the insolence of the savages could be en¬ 
dured no longer, Frontenac marched a large force into 
their country. He left Montreal in the summer of 
1696, and proceeded to Fort Frontenac, from whence 
he marched to the country of the Onondagas, wh6n 
he found the enemy had retreated, having first burnt 
their villages. He was sorely harrassed in their re¬ 
treat. The Indians continued the war until the con¬ 
clusion of peace between between France and Eng¬ 
land, when they negotiated a treaty with the French. 
Frontenac died in 1698, and was succeeded by Cal- 
lieres. But in 1702 war again broke out between 
France and England, involving, of course, the Ameri¬ 
can Colonies. The French on the one hand, in Eu¬ 
rope, suffered defeat, which rendered it impossible for 



378 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


that nation to send the needed assistance to New 
France; while on the other hand, the English, elated 
with repeated triumphs, embraced the design of con¬ 
quering the French Colony in America. The Iro¬ 
quois, although repeatedly solicited by both parties, 
maintained neutrality. The French directed their 
operations mainly against the New England Colonies. 
At length, however, the English, wearied of unsuc¬ 
cess, prepared a powerful armament under the com¬ 
mand of Sir Horenden Walker, for the reduction of 
Canada. But, fortunately for the French, the squad¬ 
ron was wrecked near the mouth of the St. Lawrence. 
Meanwhile the French were having a terrible struggle 
in the west with the Outagamies, or Foxes, who pro¬ 
jected a plan for the destruction of Detroit, and in 
which they failed only after many signs of success. 
Eetreating from Detroit, the Foxes collected their for¬ 
ces on the Fox Eiver of Green Bay, w^here they 
strongly fortified themselves ; but an expedition being 
sent against them, they were obliged to capitulate. 
The remnant of the defeated nation, however, long 
carried on a ceaseless and harrassing warfare against 
the French, and rendered insecure their communica¬ 
tion with the settlements on the Mississippi. 

13. — The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 put an end 
to hostilities in America, after which, or until the war 
in which Canada fell, the Colony enjoyed compara¬ 
tive peace. Charlevoix, who visited the principal set¬ 
tlements in 1720 and 1721, gives the best account of 
their condition at this period. Quebec then contained 
a population of about 7,000 inhabitants, but the en¬ 
tire population of the Colony at that period is un¬ 
known. The settlements were confined, principally, 
to the borders of the St. Lawrence, between Montreal 
and Quebec, extending a short distance below the lat¬ 
ter place. Above Montreal were only detached sta¬ 
tions for defense and trade. At Fort Frotenac and 
Niagara, a few soldiers were stationed, but there were 
apparently no traces of cultivation in the vicinity of 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 


879 


either of those places. A feeble settlement was found 
I at Detroit, and at Michilimackinac a fort, surrounded 
by an Indian village. On the whole, however, it ap- 
1 pears that, west of Montreal, there was nothing at this 
time which could be called a colony. From this time 
I to the war in which Wolf and Montcalm fell at Que¬ 
bec, there is nothing of great importance to record in 
the history of Canada, so condensed as this one, except 
that the French were not slack in securing the friend- 
j ship of the Indians, by which they were the better 
prepared for the struggle in which they lost their Col¬ 
ony. The other events are thus summed up: In 
1731, the French erected Fort Frederic (now Crown 
Point), oh the western shore of Lake Champlain, but 
surrendered it to the English, under Gren. Amherst, in 
1759. In 1756, they erected the fortress of Ticonde- 
roga, at the mouth of the outlet of Lake George. 
Here occurred the memorable defeat of Gen. Aber¬ 
crombie, in 1758. During the administration of the 
I Marquis du Quesne, in 1754, the fort bearing his name 
was erected, at the confluence of the Alleghany and 
Monongahela, where Pittsburgh now stands. The 
French were likewise encroaching upon Nova Scotia, 
which had been ceded to England by the Treaty 
of Utrecht, in 1718, and in the west they were 
attempting to complete a line of forts which should 
confine the British Colonists to the territory east of 
the Alleghanies. These encroachments were the prin¬ 
cipal cause which led to the “ French and Indian 
war,”—a war which resulted in the fall of Canada, 
and by which the exercise of French power over it 
was exchanged for that of the English. An account 
of this war has already been given in this work, from 
! page 114 to 120 inclusive. 

English Canada. J7(i0-1840. 

14. — The history of Canada under English rule is 
a subject quite familiar to the general reader. We 
need therefore sketch only the more important features. 
The Marquis de Yaudreuile Cavagnal, Governor of 



880 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

Canada, when the articles of capitulation were entered 
into at Quebec, secured liberal stipulations for the 
good treatment of the inhabitants, the free exercise 
of the Catholic faith, and the preservation of property 
belonging to religious communities. “ The change of 
dominion produced no material change in the condi¬ 
tion of the country. All offices, however, were con¬ 
ferred on British subjects, who then consisted only of 
military men and a few traders, many of whom were 
poorly qualified for the situations they were called to 
occupy. They showed a bigoted spirit, and an offen¬ 
sive contempt of the old French inhabitants; but the 
new Grovernor, Murray, strenuously protected the 
latter, and, by his impartial conduct, secured their 
confidence and esteem.” 

15. — When the war of the American Kevolution 
broke out, the French Canadians maintained their 
allegiance to the British Crown. This condition of 
political feeling so essential to Canada, was further 
secured by the “Quebec Act,” passed in 1774, which 
changed the English civil law, and introduced in its 
place the ancient French system, with the exception 
of the criminal branch, which continued to be similar 
to that of England. The French language was also 
directed to be employed in the courts of law, and 
other changes were made which gratified the pride of 
of the French population, although they were far 
from giving universal satisfaction, especially as they 
were not attended with the grant of a representative 
assembly. Only one serious attempt, on the part of 
the Americans, was made during the Kevolution, to 
reduce Canada, after which the Canadians united with 
the British, and, assisted by the Six Nations (with the 
exception of the Oneidas), carried on a harassing war¬ 
fare against the frontier settlements of New York. 
The issue of the war of the Kevolution was attended 
with considerable advantage to Canada. A large 
number of disbanded British soldiers, and loyalists 
from the United States, who had sought refuge in the 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 


381 


i British territories, received liberal grants of land in 
' the Upper Province, bordering on the St. Lawrence 
and Lake Ontario. 

j 1 — These new settlers were termed “ United Em¬ 
pire Loyalists,” and were greatly encouraged by the 
I English government. They received not only a full 
! land, but also the necessary farming utensils, 

: building materials, and even subsistence for two years. 

I These inducements not only increased the settlements 
in Canada, but the appearance of it. A wonderful 
! change was soon produced, and a erreat extent of 
wilderness converted into fruitful fields. Kingston, 
on the site of Fort Frontenac, rose into commercial 
importance, and was for a long time the capital of 
Ontario. The town of York, afterward Toronto, 
founded soon after by Gen. Simcoe, rose rapidly, and 
! everywhere Canada moved forward in prosperity. 

' With this advancement came a demand for representa¬ 
tive government, and in 1791, Canada was divided 
j into two provinces, called Upper and Lower, after- 
1 wards Ontario and Quebec, over which representative 
j governments were established on a British constitution 
I basis. A Governor was appointed for each province, 

I and to him was given the same power for convoking, 
proroguing and dissolving the representative assembly 
that the King himself enjoyed in England. A Legisla¬ 
tive Council, with members appointed by the King for 
life, was also established. There was also an Execu¬ 
tive Council appointed by the King, to advise and 
assist the Governor in the performance of his executive 
duties. The representative assembly in each province 
had but little direct power. It formed a concurrent 
body in the general legislature. Each provincial gov¬ 
ernment had control over all matters pertaining to the 
province, excepting the subjects of religion, its minis¬ 
ters and revenues and the waste lands belonging to the 
crown. Acts affecting these subjects could not be 
valid without the sanction of the King and Parliament 
of England. 




882 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

17. — In 1797, Gen. Prescott was made Governor 
of Lower Canada, and in 1803, a decision of the Chief 
Justice of Montreal declared slavery unlawful in that 
country, and a few individuals held in bondage were 
freed. “In 1807, apprehensions being felt of a war 
with the United States, Sir James Craig, an officer of 
distinction, was sent out as Governor General of the 
British Provinces. The principal events of the war o-f 
1812, so far as they belong to Canadian history, have 
already been related in another portion of this work. 
Soon after the close of that war, internal dissensions 
began to disturb the quiet of the two provinces, but 
more particularly that of Lower Canada. So early as 
1807. the Assembly of the Province made serious com¬ 
plaints of an undue influence of other branches of gov¬ 
ernment over their proceedings; but in vain they de¬ 
manded that the judges, who were dependent upon the 
executive and removable by him, should be expelled 
from their body.” 

18. — The administration of Sir Drummond, in 
1815, was marked by a discontent among the people 
that found emphatic expression. He was succeeded 
in the office of Governor-General by Sir John Sher¬ 
brooke, who reached Canada in 1816, and by whom 
harmony was restored to the provinces. He effected 
a compromise with the Assembly as to the support of 
the government. But, in 1818, this Governor was 
succeeded by the Duke of Richmond, who reversed 
the pacific policy of his predecessor, and exercised a 
tyrannical rule. However, in 1819, the life of the 
Duke suddenly terminated in an attack of hydropho¬ 
bia, and, in the following year. Lord Dalhousie was 
appointed to succeed him. He immediately became 
involved in the same difficulties with the Assembly 
that his predecessor had encountered, and, assuming 
even a higher tone, demanded a large sum as a perma¬ 
nent annual grant for the uses of the government. 
But the Assembly still adhered to their purposes until 
a compromise was agreed upon. There seemed to be 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 


883 


n, growing dislike to the tyranny of the Governor- 
General by the people, and, in 1823, the popular cause 
M'as strengthened by the insolvency of the Receiver- 
General or Treasurer of the Province, who proved to 
be indebted to the public over $400,000. 

19 . — Lord Dalhousie was absent in 1825, during 
which time the government was administered by Sir 
Francis Burton, who, by yielding nearly all the points 
in dispute, succeeded in pacifying the Assembly. But 
every concession made by the Govei'nor to the"Assem¬ 
bly only created further demands on the part of that 
bod}^ and. on the return of Lord Dalhousie, in 1826, 
the dissensions between the Assembly and the Gov¬ 
ernor became violent. On the meeting of the Assem¬ 
bly in the following year, Mr. Papineau was elected 
Speaker. lie was the leader of the opposition to the 
government, and the Governor refused to sanction his 
appointment. The house continued obstinate, and the 
result was, no session was held during the following 
winter. In 1828, a petition, signed b}^ 87,000 residents 
of Canada, was presented to the King, complaining of 
the conduct of Lord Dalhousie, and also his prede¬ 
cessors, and demanding compliance with the policy of 
the Assembly. The petition was referred to the House 
of Commons, and that body favored its demands. 
This report was received by the Canadians with the 
greatest satisfaction, and their joy was increased when, 
near the close of the same year. Sir James Kempt was 
sent out as governor, with instructions to carry the 
new policy into effect. The judges, although they re¬ 
fused to resign their places in the Assembly, withdrew 
from its sittings; and seats in the executive council 
were even offered to Neilson, Papineau and other 
popular leaders. 

20 , —Lord Aylmer succeeded to the government 
in 1830, giving assurances that he would carry out the 
liberal policy of the Assembly. The home govern¬ 
ment, however, had instructed him that certain casual 
revenues, arising from the sale of lands, the cutting of 




384 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


timber and other sources, were still to be considered 
as belonging to the crown, and were to be appropriated 
chiefly to the payment of the stipends of the clergy of 
the Established Church. When these instructions be¬ 
came known, the designs of government met with, 
violent opposition, and the Assembl}^ declared that 
“under no circumstances, and upon no consideration 
whatever, would it abandon or compromise its claim 
of control over the whole public revenue.” A long 
petition was drawn up, setting forth the grievances of 
the people. It received the indorsement of the Gov¬ 
ernor, and soon after the British Parliament con¬ 
ferred upon the Provincial Assembly full control over 
the most important revenues. But, in turn, permanent 
salaries were demanded for the judges, the Governor 
und a few of the chief executive officers. “The As¬ 
sembly consented to make the required provision for 
the judges, but on the condition that the casual reve¬ 
nues, which had been sought to be reserved to the 
crown, should be appropriated for this purpose. This 
condition, however, the home government refused to 
accede to. A large majority of the Assembly voted 
against making a permanent provision for the Gov¬ 
ernor and other executive officers, on the ground that 
the executive, not being dependent on the repre¬ 
sentatives of the people for a naval and military es¬ 
tablishment, would, in case of such permanent settle¬ 
ment, have been entirely free from that provincial 
control and dependence essential to the public security 
and welfare.” 

21 . — The Province, in and through its represen¬ 
tatives, was now in direct conflict with the Crown. 
The Assembly now began to name conditions for the 
payment of salaries, and demanded that the legislature 
appointed by the Crown should be abolished, and a 
new one instituted that should compare somewhat with 
the United States Senate, with members elected by 
popular vote. In 1833, a petition urging this measure 
was transmitted to the King, and in reply the British 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 


885 


ministry not only declared the proposed change dis- 
loj’al, but hinted at the possibility that events might 
I unhappily force upon Parliament the exercise of its su- 
I preme authority to put a stop to the internal dissen- 
sions of Canada, or even to modify the charter of the 
1 Canadas. This intelligence threw the Assembly into 
1 a fury, and it refused to pass any measures cooperat- 
I ing with the ministry, and the session of 1834 was 
j passed in the preparation of another petition or remon- 
I strance, setting forth the grievance of the provinces, 
;i and closing with a peremptory demand for an elective 
' legislative council. Meanwhile affairs changed in 
England, and in 1835, the Earl of Gosford was sent 
out as Governor of Canada. He at once promised, in 
, an indirect way, the speedy performance of all that the 
Assembly demanded. But if these promises or inti- 
' mations produced any good feeling, it was speedily 
: swept away when his real instructions from the home 
j government were made known. Lord Gosford probably 
concealed his instructions from the Crown, with a view 
to obtaining the needed funds, but his designs were 
discovered before he gained his point. Sir Francis 
Bond Head, who had been sent out as Governor of 
Upper Canada, was the means of disclosing the in¬ 
structions to both Governors. The British ministry 
had proclaimed that “ the King was most unwilling to 
admit, as open to debate, the question whether one of 
the vital principles of the provincial government shall 
undergo alteration.” 

22. — The excitement that followed these develop¬ 
ments was intense; “the Assembly not only com¬ 
plained of disappointment, but charged the Governor 
with perfidy; the customary supplies were withheld, 
and no provision was made for the public service. In 
the autumn of 1836, the majority of the Assembly, in 
an address presented to the Governor, declared their 
posititive adherence to their former demands for an 
elective council — maintained that they themselves, in 
opposition to the then existing legislative council, ‘ the 
25 




88<3 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

representatives of the tory party/ were the'only legiti¬ 
mate and authorized organ of the people — and finally, 
they expressed their resolution to grant no more sup¬ 
plies until the great work of justice and reform should 
be completed.” A crisis had now eorne! 

23. — Appearances declared that violent measures 
would ensue. The provincial Assembly were firm in 
their radical demands, while the Ministry were unwil¬ 
ling to concede the monarchical prerogatives. ‘‘ Early 
in 1837, the British Parliament, by a vote of 318 to 
56, declared the inexpediency of making the legisla¬ 
tive council elective by the people, and of rendering 
the executive council responsible to the Assembly. 
Intelligence of this vote occasioned violent commo¬ 
tions in the Canadas, and various meetings of the peo¬ 
ple were held, m which it was affirmed that the decis¬ 
ion of Parliament had extinguished all hopes of justice, 
and that no farther attempts should be made to obtain 
redress from that quarter. A general convention was 
proposed, to consider what farther measures were ad¬ 
visable, and a recommendation was made to discon¬ 
tinue the use of British manufactures, and of all arti¬ 
cles paying taxes.” 

24. — The situation now became unpleasant, and 
Gov. Gosford fearing the influence of Papineau, early > 
in June, 1837, called upon the governor of New 
Brunswick for a regiment of troops, and issued a proc¬ 
lamation warning the people against all attempts to i 
seduce them from their allegiance. Meetings of : 
the loyalists were also held in Montreal and Quebec, 
condemning the violent proceedings of the Assembly, 
and deprecating both the objects and the measures of 
the so called patriot party. In August, Lord Gosford 
called a meeting of the provincial legislature, and 
submitted measures for amending the legislative coun- 
cil, but the representatives adhered to their former *). 
purposes of withholding supplies until all their griev- *< 
ances should be redressed when the governor ex- It 
pressing his regret at measures which he consider- 


DO^JTXIOX OF CANADA. 


<7 


ed a virtual anniliilation of the constitution, pro- 
rogged the Assembly.” A resort to arms seems now 
to have been resolved upon by the popular leaders of 
the people, as against the governmentof Great Britian, 
and, it was nodonbt hoped by this class that the strug¬ 
gle would result in complete independence. A cen¬ 
tral committee was formed with headquarters at Mon¬ 
treal, and an association known as “ Sons of Liberty ” 
was organized b}* this management, which marched in 
procession through the streets, demonstrating a feeling 
of disloj^alt}^, or dislike to the British yoke, and call¬ 
ing upon the people to rally round the standard of 
freedom. 

25.—Violent demonstrations against the crown 
oflicers were now witnessed in many quarters. In the 
county of Two Mountains, north of the Ottowa and 
adjoining ^fontreal on the west, the people deposed 
their magistrates, and reorganized the militia under 
officers of their own choice, thereby overriding British 
authority in that section. These proceedings were 
soon after imitated in other places. In six coun¬ 
ties southwest of the St. Lawrence, all persons hold¬ 
ing office under the crown were forced to resign their 
situations or leave the country. Loyalist associations- 
were also formed in opposition to the Freedom party, 
and these -backed by the Catholic clergy, exhorted the- 
people to loyalty. In Montreal the “ Sons of Liberty,” 
were attacked in the streets and dispersed by the^ 
Loyalists, and, although none were killed, man\^ were 
seriously wounded. The office of the Vindicator was 
destroyed and the residence of Papineau, the great op¬ 
position agitator, was set on fire by the loyalists, but 
was saved from the flames after great agitation. Ex¬ 
aggerated reports of these doings spread through the 
country creating the wildest excitement. The disloyal 
movement was now assuming such shape that the gov¬ 
ernment issued warrants for the arrest of twenty-six of 
the most prominent agitators, of whom seven were 
members of the Assembly, including the popular 


388 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


Papineau, tlie speaker of that body. Several were ar¬ 
rested, but the speaker could not be found. Consider¬ 
able opposition was put forth against the parties en¬ 
deavoring to make the arrests, and rnan}^ rescues were 
effected. “In the latter part of November, strong de¬ 
tachments of government troops, commanded by 
Cols. Gore and Wetherall, were sent to attack armed 
bodies of insurgents, assembled under Papineau, 
Brown and Neilson, at the villages of St. Denis and 
St. Charles on the Sorel. Col. Gore proceeded against 
St. Denis, which he attacked with great spirit, but 
was repulsed with a loss of ten killed, ten wounded, 
and six missing. Col. Wetherallwas more successful. 
Although St. Charles was defended by a thousand 
men, the place was carried after a severe engagement, 
in which the insurgents lost nearly three hundred in 
killed and wounded. This affair suppressed the in¬ 
surrection in that quarter. The peasantry, panic 
stricken, threw down their arms; Neilson was taken 
prisoner, and Brown and Papineau sought safety by 
escaping to the United States.” 

20. — The work of suppressing the insurrection con¬ 
tinued. In December, 1837, thirteen hundred regular 
and volunteer troops were sent against the districts of 
Two ^Mountains and Terrebonne, which were still in a 
state of rebellion. “ At St. Eustache an obstinante 
stand was made by the insurgents, who were finally 
defeated with severe loss. Numbers of the inhabitants 
were remorselessly massacred, and their beautiful vil¬ 
lage burned. The village of St. Benoit, whicli had 
been the chief seat of insurrection, surrendered with¬ 
out resistance, but such was the rage of the loyalists, 
who had been plundered and driven out of the country, 
that they reduced a large portion of the village to 
ashes. Several of the patriot leaders were taken, and 
at the close of the year 1837 the whole province of 
Lower Canada was again in a state of tranquillity.” 

27. — But the war was not confined to Quebec or 
Lower Canada. While these incidents of strife were 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 


889 


U'anspiring in the lower province, events of great 
importance took place in Upper Canada. A discon¬ 
tented party had ai'isen there, demanding reforms quite 
as distasteful to Great Britain as those urged in Lower 
Canada, and in 1886 the assembly had stopped the 
ordinary supplies, but in the following year, when a 
new election for members was held, the influence of 
the governor. Sir Francis Head, succeeded in causing 
the election of a majority of members friendly to the 
existing government. “^From this time tranquillity 
prevailed until the breaking out of the insurrection in 
the lower province, when the leaders of the popular 
party, who had long desired a separation from Great 
IL’itain, seized the opportunity for putting their plans 
in execution. During the night of the oth of Decem¬ 
ber, 1837, about five hundred men, under the com¬ 
mand of Mackenzie, assembled at Montgomery’s 
Tavern, four miles from Toronto, with the view of 
taking the city by surprise. Several persons pro¬ 
ceeding to the city were taken prisoners, but one of 
them escaping, the alarm was given, and by morning 
three hundred loyalists w^ere mustered under arms, 
and the design of attacking the place was abandoned.” 
On the 7th the loylists marched to the attack, and the 
insurgents were easily driven back and many of them 
made prisoners. 

28. — The excitement now spread along the border 
of the United States. Mackenzie, having fled to Buffalo, 
succeeded in raising there a great enthusiasm for the 
cause of Canada. A small force was quickly raised, 
and Van Kensselaer, Sutherland and others presented 
themselves as military leaders. This force took pos¬ 
session of Navy Island, in the Niagara Channel, and 
erected fortifications on it, which were mounted by 
thirteen pieces of. cannon. A thousand recruits soon 
flocked to this post. Col. McNab soon arrived oppo¬ 
site the island, but without the facilities for crossing the 
channel or successfully cann^inading the fortifications. 
These scenes and incidents drew around them many 


890 ' COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

Americans, who were disposed to espouse the cause of 
the “ patriots,” but President Van Buren issued two suc¬ 
cessive proclamations, warning the people of the penal¬ 
ties to which an active participation in the conflict 
would make them liable. Gen. Scott was appointed to 
the command on the frontier, with instructions to main¬ 
tain a strict neutrality. Meanwhile a small steamer, 
named the Caroline, which had been employed by the 
insurgents in the channel for conveying supplies, was at¬ 
tacked in the night by Capt. Drew, while moored to 
the American shore. One of the crew was killed, and 
the vessel, after being towed to the middle of the 
stream, was set on fire, d'he burning craft was carried 
over the falls. This act, having occurred in Uwited 
States waters, occasioned great excitement throughout 
the Union, and led to an angr}^ correspondence between 
the British and United States Ministers. 

29.— After the arrival of Gen. Scott on the frontier, 
the insurrection in that vicinit}^ was soon quelled. “Ef¬ 
fective measures wore taken to prevent further supplies 
and recruits from reaching Navy Island, when, the 
force of the assailants continually increasing, and a 
severe cannonade having been commenced by themi, 
the insurgents evacuated their position on the 14th of 
January. Van Kensselaer and Mackenzie, escaping to 
the United States, were arrested by the American au¬ 
thorities, but admitted to bail. A number of the 
fugitives fled to the west, and under their leader, Suth¬ 
erland, formed an establishment on an island in the 
Detroit Channel. After meeting with some reverses, 
this party also voluntarily disbanded. Tranquillity 
was now restored to both Canadas — Parliament made 
some charges in the constitution of the lower prov¬ 
ince— and in May, 1838, the Earl of Durham arrived 
at Quebec, as Governor-General of all Briiish America. 
Having taken the responsibility of banishing lo Ber¬ 
muda, under penalty of death in case of return, a num¬ 
ber of prisoners taken in the late insurrection, and 
charged with the crime of high treason, his conduct 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 


391 


met with some censure in the British Parliament, which 
induced him to resign his commission, and on the 1st 
of November he sailed from Quebec, on his return to 
England.” 

30. — Soon after Sir Francis Head, the Governor of 
the upper province, left for England, several bands of 
Americans, invited by the “ patriots,” crossed the 
Niagara Channel, but were driven back by the militia. 

A party also crossed near Detroit, but, after losing a 
few of their number, were compelled to return. On 
the 8d of November, only two days after the departure 
of the Earl of Durham, a fresh rebellion, which had 
been organizing during the summer along the whole 
line of the American frontier, broke out in the southern 
counties of Montreal District. At Napierville, west 
of the Sorel, Dr. Neilson and other leaders had col¬ 
lected about 4,000 men, several hundred of whom were 
detached to open a communication with their friends 
on the American side of the line. These were attacked 
and repulsed by a party of loyalists, who afterwards 
posted themselves in Odeltown chapel, where they were 
in turn attacked by a large body of the insurgents, 
headed by Neilson himself, but after a severe engage¬ 
ment the latter were obliged to retreat with considera¬ 
ble loss. 

31. — But while these movements were going on. 
Sir James McDonnell was marching at the head of 
seven regiments of the line upon the insurgents. So 
rapid and effectual were his movements that in less 
than two weeks the whole rebellion in Lower Canada 
was suppressed. Not long after these events several 
hundred Americans sailed from the vicinity of Sacketts 
Harbor, and landed near Prescott, where they were 
joined bv a force of “patriots.” The party was 
prornptly'attacked by the government troops, but the 
latter were repulsed ; ’ but being reinforced, the invaders 
w^ere repulsed or taken prisoners. Later in the year a 
party of Americans crossed from Detroit, and after cre¬ 
ating considerable disturbance, they were defeated and 


892 


COUNTEIES OF NOKTH AMERICA. 


dispersed. A number of prisoners were ordered to be 
shot by the Canadian authorities immediately after the 
engagement. These events closed the year 1838, and 
were the closing acts of the rebellion. During the 
struggle the American government had exerted itself to 
maintain neutrality, but it was evident that the feeling 
of the people of the United States was in warm sym¬ 
pathy with the Canadians who fought for liberty. 

82. — On the 23d of July, 1840, the British Parlia¬ 
ment, after much bitter discussion, passed an act by 
which the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada were 
united into one, under the name of the Province of 
Canada. The form of government was but little 
changed — the Grovernor was appointed by Her Majes¬ 
ty, a Legislative Council, and a Pepresentative As¬ 
sembly. The old Executive council was abolished. 
“ The members of the Legislative Council were to con¬ 
sist of such persons, not being fewer than twenty, as 
the Governor should summon, with Her Majesty’s per¬ 
mission, each member to hold his seat during life. 
The members of the Representative Assembly were to 
be elected by the people, but no person was eligible to 
an election who was not possessed of land, free from all 
incumbrances, to the value of five hundred pounds 
sterling. The duties and revenues of the two former 
provinces were consolidated into one fund, from which 
seventy-five thousand pounds sterling were made pay¬ 
able annually for the expenses of the government. 
After being subject to these charges, the surplus of the 
revenue fund might be appropriated as the Legislature 
saw fit, but still in accordance with the recommenda¬ 
tions of the Governor.” We turn, at this point, to 
bring forward the history of other provinces, in order 
that we may bring ourselves to a point where we may 
take up the Dominion, which was constituted in 1867. 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 


893 


i PROVINCE OF NOVA SCOTIA. 

I. SURFACE. 

1 . —The coasts of Nova Scotia are indented with 
i a great number of excellent bays and harbors, and be- 
I tween Halifax and the Gut of Canso alone there are 
I between twenty and thirty commodious harbors, ten of 

which will accommodate ocean ships. The principal 
inlets are Chedabucto Bay, at the entrance of the Gut 
of Canso : Halifax Harbor and Mayaret’s and Mayhon 
Bays, on the southwest; St. Mary’s Bay, Annapolis 
Basin, Mines Basin, and Chignecto Basin, on the Bay 
of Fundy; and Pictou Harbor on the Northumber¬ 
land Strait. Among the most prominent headlands 
are Cape Canso, at the mouth of the Gut of Canso; 
Cape Sable, the southeastern extremity of the Prov¬ 
ince, and Cape Chignecto, at the end of a peninsula 
putting out into the Bay of Fundy from the Isthmus 
which connects Nova Scotia with the mainland, and 
having Mines Basin on the one side and Chignecto 
Bay on the other. The coasts throughout are lined 
with islands, close to which there is deep water. On 
the Atlantic Coast the islands and rocks form a very 
good breakwater. 

2. — Sable Island, about 85 miles from Novo 
Scotia, but considered as belonging to it, is twenty- 
five miles long and one and a quarter miles wide. This 
island is surrounded by an extensive bank and consists 
of but little else than a sandy waste. It lies in the 
track of vessels sailing between Europe and America, 
and is the scene of frequent shipwrecks, a party of 
wreckers are maintained on it by the provincial gov¬ 
ernment. 

3. — The principal rivers of Nova Scotia are the 
Annapolis and the Shubenacadie, flowing into the Bay 
of Fundy ; the East, West and Middle rivers, into the 
harbor of Pictou on Northumberland Strait, all of 



394 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


which are navigable; and the Avon, Havre, Medway, 
Mersey, Clyde, Shelburne, Tusket and St. Mary. The 
Shubenacadie Canal, together vdth a chain of lakes, 
forms an inland communication from Halifax to Cobe- 
quid Bay. There are numerous lakes, but with the ex¬ 
ception of Rossignal, which is thirty miles long, they are 
all small. The surface is undulating, and though there 
are no mountains, ranges of hills of considerable size 
take their place and give diversity to the landscape. 
The highest point, ikrdoise Hill, is only 810 feet above 
the level of the sea. The soil varies much in fertility. 

II. HISTORY. 

1605 - 1867 . 

1 , — In 1603, the King of France granted to De 
Monts, a gentleman of distinction, the sovereignty of 
the country from the 40th to the 46th degree of north 
latitude. Sailing with two vessels in the spring of 
1604, he arrived at Nova Scotia in May, and spent 
the summer in trade with the Indians and examinins; 
the coasts to find a suitable place for a settlement. 
After spending the winter and suffering much on the 
coast of New Brunswick, in the spring of 1605, He 
Monts removed to a place on the bay of Fundy, and 
here was formed the first permanent French settlement 
in America. The settlement was named Port Royal, 
and the whole country, embracing New Brunswick, 
Nova Scotia and the adjacent islands, was called 
Acadia. The settlement at Port Royal was invaded, 
in 1614, by Samuel Argali, under the authority of the 
colony of Virginia, and reduced, wdfich completed the 
conquest of Acadia by the British. France made no 
complaint of Argalhs aggression, beyond demanding 
the restoration of the prisoners, nor did Britain take 
any immediate measures for retaining her conquests. 
But, in 1621, Sir William Alexander, afterwards Earl 
of Stirling, obtained from the King, James I, a grant 
of Nova Scotia and the adjacent islands, and, in 1625, 
the commission was renewed by Charles I, and ex- 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 895 

tended so as to embrace all Canada and the northern 
portions of the United States. 

2. — In 1628, a vessel was dispatched with settlers, 
but they found the whole country in the possession of 
the French, and were obliged to return to England 
without founding a settlement. In 1628, while the 
war with France was in progress, Sir David Kirk, who 
had been sent out for that purpose, succeeded in re¬ 
ducing Nova Scotia, and not only so, but in the fol¬ 
lowing year, as we have seen, succeeded in the con¬ 
quest of all Canada, but the whole county was restored 
to the French by the treaty of 1682. At this time 
the French court divided Nova Scotia between three 
individuals, La Tour, Denys and Eozillai, and ap- 

i pointed the latter Commander-in-Chief of the colony. 
He w\as succeeded by Charnise, between whom and 
La Tour a quarrel arose, which caused great trouble. 
At length Charnise died, and the trouble was for a 
time suppressed by La Tour’s marrying the widow of 

j his enemy; but not long after, a creditor of Charnise 
appeared, named La Bargne, and with an armed force 
endeavored to reduce Denys and La Tour. He over¬ 
came several important posts, and was, marching 
against St. John when a formidable opposition put a 
stop to his conquests. Cromwell had assumed the 
reins of government, and, in 1654, England declared 
war against France, and dispatched an expedition 
against Nova Scotia, which met with success, bringing 
the whole country under England, La Tour submitted 
to the new yoke, and, in connection with Sir Thomas 
Zemple, obtained a grant of the greater portion of the 
peninsula. Sir Thomas bought out La Tour, soon 
after, and spent $30,000 in fortifications, which greatly 
improved the commerce of the country; but all his 
fair prospects were swept away by the treaty of Breda, 
in 1667, by which Nova Scotia was again ceded to 
France. 

3. — The French at once took possession of the 
colony, which, as yet, contained no very large settle- 




896 COUNTKIES OE NORTH AMERICA. 

ments — tlie population, in 1680, not exceeding 900. 
The fisheries, the only profitable industry, were con¬ 
ducted by the English. The forts were few and weak, 
and two of them were plundered by pirates. In this 
situation, when the war broke out in 1689, Acadia ap¬ 
peared an easy conquest, and the achievement of this 
was given to Massachusetts. “ In May, 1690. Sir 
William Phipps, with 700 men, appeared before Port 
Koyal, which soon surrendered ; but be merely dis¬ 
mantled the fortress, and then left the country a prey 
to pirates. A French Commander arriving in Novem¬ 
ber of the following year, the country was reconquered 
simply by pulling down the English and hoisting the 
French flag. Soon after, the Bostonians, aroused by 
the depredations of the French and Indians on the 
frontiers, sent out a body of 500 men, who soon re¬ 
gained the whole country, with the exception of one 
fort on the River St. John. Acadia now remained in 
possession of the English until the treaty of R 3 'swick, 
in 1697, when it was again restored to France.” 

4. — The peace of 1697 was soon followed by war. 
War was declared against France and Spain, and it 
was again resolved to reduce Nova Scotia, and again 
the undertaking was intrusted to Massachusetts. This 
time the invading party was assured that what was 
gained by arms would not be sacrificed by treaty. 
“The first expedition, despatched in 1704, met with 
little resistance, but did little more than ravage the 
country. In 1707, a force of 1,000 soldiers was sent 
against Port Royal, but the French commandant con¬ 
ducted the defense of the place with so much ability, 
that the assailants were obliged to retire with consid¬ 
erable loss. In 1710, a much larger force, under the 
command of Gen. Nicholson, appeared before Port 
Royal, but the French commandant having but a fee¬ 
ble garrison, and declining to attempt a resistance, 
obtained an honorable capitulation. Port Royal was 
now named Annapolis. From this period Nova Sco¬ 
tia has been permanently annexed to the British 
crown.” 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 


897 


5. — But tlie Indians of Nova Scotia, like those of 
the other portions of northern America, remained fast 
friends to the French, even after the French cause was 
hopeless and the country had passed forever into the 
hands of the English. They were determined to re¬ 
main independent: hence they carried on a vigorous 
war against the English. In 1720 they plundered a 
large establishment at Canso, carrying off fish and 
merchandise to the amount of $10,000; and in 1723 
they captured at the same place seventeen sail of ves¬ 
sels, with numerous prisoners, nine of whom they 
deliberately and cruelly put to death. The Indians 
still continued hostile, and the British inhabitants of 
Nova Scotia were obliged to solicit aid from Massa¬ 
chusetts, and in 1728 that province sent a body of 
troops against the principal village of the Norridge- 
wocks, on the Kennebec. The enemy were surprised 
and defeated with great slaughter, and among those 
w’ho fell victims to the contest, was the missionar}'-, 
Father Ralle, who had resided among them for over 
forty years. This severe punishment awed the na¬ 
tives, so that for many years the English settlements 
of Nova Scotia enjoyed tranquillity. 

6. — But when, in 1744, war broke out again be¬ 
tween France and England, the French Governor of 
Cape Breton immediately attempted the conquest of 
Novia Scotia. He reduced Canso, and laid seige to 
Annapolis, but was unsuccessful. The English, on 
the contrarj", succeeded in taking Louisburg, the then 
Gibralter of America, but when peace w^as concluded, 
by the Treaty of Aix la Chapelle, in 1748, the island 
of Cape Breton was restored to France. After this 
treaty Nova Scotia began to be the object of attention 
of England. The peninsula had hitherto been settled 
almost exclusively by the French. In order to intro¬ 
duce a greater proportion of English settlers, it was 
proposed to colonize in Nova Scotia a large number 
of the soldiers who had been discharged in con.se- 
quence of the disbanding of the army, and in the lat- 



898 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


ter part of June, 1749, a company of nearly 4,000 
adventurers of this class was added to the population 
of the colony. To every soldier were given fifty acres 
of land, with ten additional acres for every member of 
his family. Officers had a larger allowance, and every 
person above a captain received six hundred acres, 
with proportionate increase for the members of fami¬ 
lies. These settlers were. conveyed free of expense, 
and furnished with ammunition and with utensils for 
clearing their lands and erecting dwellings, and were 
maintained twelve months at the expense of the gov¬ 
ernment. 

7. — The emigrants were landed at Chebucto Har¬ 
bor under the charge of the Hon. Edward Cornwallis, 
whom the King had appointed their Governor. At 
this place they at once commenced the building of the 
town of Halifax, which was named in honor of the 
nobleman who had the greatest share in founding the 
colony. The place selected for the new town con¬ 
tained the advantages of one of the finest harbors in 
America. The colony “ was considered of so great 
importance to England, that parliament continued to 
make annual grants for it, which, in 1755, had 
amounted to the enormous sum of nearly tvvo millions 
of dollars. But although the English settlers were 
thus firmly established, they soon found themselves 
unpleasantly situated. The limits of Nova Scotia had 
never been defined, by the treaties between France and 
England, with sufficient clearness to prevent disputes 
about boundaries, and each party was now striving to 
obtain possession of a territory claimed by the other. 
The government of France contended that the British 
dominion, according to the treaty which ceded Nova 
Scotia, extended only over the present peninsula of 
the same name ; while, according to the English, it 
extended over all that large tract of country formerly 
known as Acadia, including the present province of 
New Brunswick. Admitting the English claim, 
France would be deprived of a portion of territory of 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 


399 


great value to her, materially aflPecting her control over 
the Eiver and Gulf of St. Lawrence, and greatly 
endangering the security of her Canadian posses¬ 
sions.” 

8. — No sooner was it apparent that the English in¬ 
tended to colonize the whole peninsula, than the 
French, jealous of their former enemies, sought to 
prejudice the Indians against them, “in the hope of 
effectually preventing the English from extending 
their plantations, and, perhaps, of inducing them to 
abandon their settlements entirely. The Indians even 
made attacks upon Halifax, and the colonists could 
not move into the adjoining woods, singly or in small 
parties, without dnnger of being shot and scalped, or 
taken prisoners. In support of the French claims, the 
Governor of Canada sent detachments, which, aided 
by strong bodies of Indians and a few French Acadi- 
ans, erected the fort of Beau Sejouron the neck of the 
peninsula of Nova Scotia, and another on the Eiver 
St. John, on pretense that these places were within the 
government of Canada. Encouraged by these demon¬ 
strations, the French inhabitants around the bay of 
Chignecto rose in open rebellion against the English 
government, and in the spring of 1750, the Governor 
of Nova Scotia sent Maj. Lawrence with a few men to 
reduce them to obedience. At his approach, the 
French abandoned their dwellings, and placed them¬ 
selves under the protection of the commandant of Fort 
Beau Sejour, when Lawrence, finding the enemy too 
strong for him, was obliged to return without accom¬ 
plishing his object.” Not long after, Maj. Lawrence 
was again sent out with 1,000 men; but after doing 
the enernv but little harm, he was obliged to retire. 
To keep the French in subjection, the English built a 
fort on the narrow strip of land near the isthmus, con¬ 
necting the peninsula with New Brunswick, which 
they called Fort Lawrence. The French erected addi¬ 
tional forts in the disputed territory, and vessels, with 
troops and military stores, were sent to Canada and 



400 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


Cape Breton, until the English became alarmed at the 
critical situation in which they were placed. 

9. — But in 1755, Admiral Boscawen commenced 
the war which had long been anticipated by both par¬ 
ties, by capturing on the coast of Newfoundland two 
French vessels with eight companies of soldiers on 
board, and about $35,000 in specie. With the com¬ 
mencement of hostilities, a force was sent out from New 
England under Cols. Monckton and Winslow to dis¬ 
lodge the enemy, and possess their nswly built fortifi¬ 
cations. The troops set out from Boston on the 20th. 
of May, and after a safe voyage, anchored in Chignecto 
Bay, about five miles from Fort Lawrence. On arriv¬ 
ing at the river then called Marsaquah, they found 
their progress opposed by the enemy, four hundred and 
fifty of whom occupied a block house, while the 
others were securely posted behind a heavy breast¬ 
work of timber. Having dislodged both of these 
forces. Col. Monckton advanced to Fort Beau Sejour, 
which he subdued after four days hard fighting. He 
changed the name of the fort to that of Fort Cumber¬ 
land, and left it in charge of a British garrison. He 
then reduced another French post on the Gaspereau 
Biver, which flows into Bay Yeste. Here he obtained 
a large store of provisions and stores. The success of 
this expedition was in producing tranquillity in all 
Acadia, then claimed by the English and called Nova 
Scotia. 

10 . — But the situation of the people of Nova 

Scotia, at this time was full of danger. The war in 
Europe opened adverse to the British arms, and Brad- 
dock had been defeated in his invasion of the French 
outposts in the northwest. The French cause seemed 
to prosper, and it was believed that Nova Scotia 
would be invaded. At this time the French Acadians 
amounted to 18,000. “ They had,” says an eminent 

writer, ‘‘ cultivated a considerable extent of land, pos¬ 
sessed about 60,000 head of cattle, had neat and c!om- 
fortable dwellings, and lived in a state of plenty, but 






































































































































































































































































•i 






>. ■ 

f I 




% 





t 


4 






I 







DOMINION OF CANADA. 


401 


of great simplicity. They were a peaceful, industri¬ 
ous and amiable race, governed mostly by their pas¬ 
tors, who exercised a parental authority over them; 
they cherished a deep attachment to their native coun¬ 
try,^ they had resisted every invitation to bear arms 
against it, and had invariably refused to take the oath 
of allegiance to Great Britain. Although the great 
body of these people remained tranquilly occupied in 
the cultivation of their lands, yet a few indi^^iduals 
had joined the Indians, and about 300 were taken in 
in the forts, in open rebellion against the govern¬ 
ment of the country. Under these circumstances, 
Governor Lawrence and his council, aided by Ad¬ 
mirals Boscawen and Mostyn, assembled to con¬ 
sider what disposal of the Acadians the security 
of the country required. Their decision resulted 
in the determination to tear the whole of this peo¬ 
ple from their homes, and disperse them through 
the different British colonies, where they would be 
unable to unite in any offensive measures, and where 
they might in time become naturalized to the govern¬ 
ment. Their lands, houses, and cattle, were, without 
any alleged crime, declared to be forfeited ; and they 
were allowed to carry with them only their money and 
household furniture, both of extremely small amount. 
Treachery was necessary to render this tyrannical 
scheme effective. The inhabitants of each district 
were commanded to meet at a certain place and day 
on urgent business, the nature of which was carefully 
concealed from them ; and when they were all assem¬ 
bled, the dreadful mandate was pronounced, and only 
small parties of them were allowed to return for a 
short time to make the necesssary preparations. They 
appear to have listened to their doom with unexpected 
resignation, making only mournful and solemn ap¬ 
peals, which were wholly disregarded. When, how- 
over, the moment of embarkation arrived, the young 
men who were placed in front, absolutely'refused to 
move; and it required files of soldiers, with fixed 
26 



402 COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

bayonets, to secure obedience. No arrangements had 
been made for their location elsewhere, nor was any 
compensation offered for the property of which they 
were deprived. They were merely thrown on the 
coast at different points, and compelled to trust to the 
charity of the inhabitants, who did not allow any of 
them to be absolutely starved. Still through hardships, 
distress, and change of climate, a great proportion of 
them perished. So eager was their desire to return, that 
those sent to Georgia had set out, and actually reach¬ 
ed New York, when they were arrested. They ad¬ 
dressed a pathetic representation to the English gov¬ 
ernment, in which, quoting the most solemn treaties 
and declarations, they proved that their treatment had 
been as faithless as it was cruel. No attention, how¬ 
ever, was paid to this document, and so guarded a 
silence was preserved by the government of Nova 
Scotia, upon the subject of the removal of the Acadi- 
ans, that the records of the province make no allu¬ 
sions whatever to the event. Notwithstanding the 
barbarous diligence with which this mandate was exe¬ 
cuted, it is supposed that the number actually remov¬ 
ed from the province did not exceed 7,000. The rest 
fled into the depths of the forests, or to the nearest 
French settlements, enduring incredible hardships. 
To guard against the return of the hapless fugitives, 
the government reduced to ashes their habitations and 
property, laying waste even their own lands, with a 
fury exceeding that of the most savage enemy. In 
one district, 286 houses were at once in a blaze. The 
Acadians, from the heart of the woods, beheld all 
they possessed consigned to destruction; yet they 
made no movement till the devastators wantonly set 
their chapel on fire. They then rushed forward in des¬ 
peration, killed about thirty of the incendiaries, and 
then hastened back to their hiding places.” 

11. — At the close of the “French and Indian 
war,” France was compelled to yield her possessions 
in North America to the English, and now the English 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 


403 


government of the Province of Nova Scotia did all in 
its power to promote the general prosperity of the 
settlements, but after the fullest exertions had been 
made, the dreadful blank made by the banishment 
of the French was painfully visible. After the 
peace the French were allowed to return to their 
old homes, and occupy lands on taking the cus¬ 
tomary oaths, but no compensation was offered them 
for the property of which they had been plundered. 
However, a few did return, and in 1772, out of 
a French population of 18,000, that once occupied 
portions of Nova Scotia, but 2,000 remained. It 
should have been mentioned before, that in 1758, 
during the administration of Gov. Lawrence a legisla¬ 
tive assembly was given to the people of Nova Scotia; 
Qnd also, that in 1761 a treaty was made with the 
Indians by which they agreed to forever bury the 
hatchet, and to accept George III instead of the King 
of France as their great father. 

12. — During the war of the revolution. Nova 
Scotia remained loyal to the British interests, and at 
the close of the war, the population of the province 
was greatly increased by the loyalist refugees fronu 
the United States. Many of these settled in what was; 
soon after, in 1784, erected into the Province of New^ 
Brunswick. At the same time the island of Cape- 
Breton which, since the capture of Louisburgh, ia 
1748, had been united with Nova Scotia, was made a. 
separate colony. It remained under a separate gov¬ 
ernment, but under the British crown, until 1820,. 
when it was reunited to Nova Scotia, to which it still 
belongs. Since these events Nova Scotia has enjoyed 
a long period of peace, in which the province, with a 
popular government, partially representative and par¬ 
tially crown appointed, has grown in commercial 
importance. In 1867 the province became a part of 
the Dominion of Canada. 



404 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


PROVINCE OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 

I. SURFACE. 

1 , — ’The principal bays and harbors of ISTew Bruns¬ 
wick are Bathurst Bay on the north coast, Miramichi 
Bay on the east, and Passamaquoddy Bay and St. 
John Harbor on the south. There are many rivers 
streams and lakes in the province. The largest river 
is the St. John, which has its source in a lake of the 
same name in Maine. After entering Hew Brunswick 
it flows, first, south, and then southeast, and falls 
into the Bay of Fundy, at St. John, after coursing over 
450 miles. The principal tributary of the St. John, 
in New Brunswick, is the Tobique. The Miramichi 
courses through the central part of the Province in 
a northeast direction, and falls into the gulf of St. 
Lawrence. The Restigouche divides New Brunswick 
from Canada and falls into the Bay of Chaleur after a 
course of 200 miles. The Nepisiguit, 100 miles long, 
also flows into this bay. The Petitcodiac flow’s into 
the Bay of Fundy, and is navitrable for over twenty- 
five miles for large vessels. There are a number of 
small lakes in the northern part of the Province, and 
in the southern portion there are a few somewhat 
larger. Among these are Grand Lake, tw'enty miles 
long and about five broad, and Washademoak Lake, 
twenty miles long and two broad. These are both 
between St. John and Frederigton. 

2. — There are no mountains of any considerable 
bight in New Brunswick, however, in the northern 
part of the Province, the country is quite mountainous. 
The scenery of this district is very beautiful. The 
surface of the southern portion is greatly broken by 
rocks and ravines, the coast being bold and rocky. 
East of the St. John river the soil is deep and very 
fertile, and originally covered with tall and dense 
forests. To the west of that river the soil is rather 
poorer, but there are many well watered valleys that 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 


405 


are very fertile. For nearly twenty miles inland, 
along the shore of the gulf of St. Lawrence, the 
' county is flat and fertile; but in the interior it rises 
^ into gently sloping hills, which extend to the west as 
I far as the St. John. Iron ore is abundant, and copper 
ore has been found on the banks of the Nepisiguit, 
nor far from St. John. The coal field of New Bruns¬ 
wick covers an area of 10,000 square miles. The 
i climate is healthful though quite severe. The chief 
j vegetable production of New Brunswick is timber, of 
which there are all the varieties indigenous to North 
' America — the pine predominating. 

ir. HISTORY. 

1783-186T. 

1, — In our history of Nova Scotia, we have brought 
the history of New Brunswick forward until it was 
erected into a separate province in 1783. Previous to 
that erection, the French comprehended it under the 
I title of New France, or the British held it under the 
name Nova Scotia. After Nova Scotia had been 
! finally ceded to the English, the French set up a claim 
to New Brunswick, and, as we have seen, to defend 
their claims, they erected forts on the neck of the 
peninsula, and armed the Acadians and Indians, but, 
when all Canada had fallen into the hands of the British, 
and the peace of 1763 was concluded, all dissensions 
on this subject were ended. However, even after this, 
the country was left nearly unoccupied except by a few 
French, who had sought refuge among its forests to 
escape the heartless persecution of the English already 
described. In 1762, a few families settled at Mauger- 
I ville, about fifty miles up the St. John, and, in 1783, 
they numbered over 800. At the close of the war 
of the Revolution, several thousands of disbanded 
j troops, who had been removed from New England, 

I were located at Fredericton; and a party of Acadi¬ 
ans who had settled there, were ordered to Madawaska 
to make room for them. These new colonists, however, 





406 COUNTKTES OF NOKTH AMERICA. 

accustomed to all the comforts of civilized life, en¬ 
dured the most dreadful hardships when first placed 
in the midst of this wilderness; and it was onlj^' after 
severe suffering and toil that they could place their 
families in any degree of comfort. 

2 , — In 1785, Sir Guy Carleton was appointed Gov¬ 
ernor of the province. He exerted all the powers at 
his command to improve the condition of the prov¬ 
ince, which gradually but slowly advanced in pros¬ 
perity. In 1803, he returned to England, after which, 
until 1817, the government of the colony was admin¬ 
istered by Presidents. But the foundation of New 
Brunswick was at length laid in 1809, when heav}^ 
duties were levied on timber imported to England 
from the Baltic, while that from New Brunswick was 
left free. “The export of timber, from that period, 
continually increased, till it reached its height in 1825, 
when, in consequence of speculative overtrading, a 
severe reaction was experienced. Yet, since that 
event, this branch of industry has rallied, and becom.e 
nearly as extensive as ever, while a new impulse has 
been given to the prosperity of the country by the ar¬ 
rival of foreign cultivators.” 

3. — From 1817 to 1823, the office of Lieutenant- 
Governor was held by Major General Smith, although 
during nearly the whole of the time the administra¬ 
tion of affairs was intrusted to Presidents Chipman 
and Bliss. In August, 1824, the latter was succeeded 
by Sir Howard Douglass, to whose exertions the 
growth and prosperity of the province are greatly in¬ 
debted. He was relieved by Sir Archibald Campbell, 
whose place was supplied, in 1837, by Major General 
Sir John Harvey, from Prince Edward Island. On 
the removal of the latter to Newfoundland, the office 
of Governor of New Brunswick was given to Sir W. 
G. Colebrooke. During the administration of Sir 
John Harvey, the disputed boundary between Maine 
and New Brunswick, which had long been a cause of 
controversy between Great Britain and the United 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 


407 


States, threatened to involve the two countries in hos¬ 
tilities; but fortunately, in 1842, this subject of con¬ 
tention was removed by a treaty which settled the 
boundary in a manner satisfactory to both parties. 
Since this period, New Brunswick has enjoyed a gov¬ 
ernment similar to that of Nova Scotia, and has made 
equal progress in commerce and wealth. In 1867, the 
province, with Nova Scotia, entered into the confeder¬ 
ation called the Dominion of Canada. 

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. 

I. SURFACE. 

1 . — This Island is separated from Nova Scotia and 
New Brunswick by Northumberland Strait, which var¬ 
ies in width from 9 to 30 miles. The shores are indented 
by numerous bays, some of which extend so far inland 
that the island is shaped into three peninsulas, con¬ 
nected by narrow isthmuses, one of which is but 
one mile wide. The coasts are bold and lined with 
red cliffs, ranging from 20 to 100 feet in hight. The 
surface is beautifully diversified and watered by nu¬ 
merous springs and rivers. The soil is fertile, covered 
with a thin layer of decayed vegetable matter, over a 
light loam about a foot deep, below which is a solid 
clay, resting upon sandstone. No valuable minerals 
have been discovered. The climate is very healthy, 
much milder than that of the adjoining continent. 
The island was formerly covered by extensive forests, 
but they have been nearly all removed, and there is 
now only sufficient timber for industrial purposes. All 
kinds of grain and fruit succeed well. Prince Edward 
Island is one of the best fishing stations on the gulf of 
St. Lawrence. The fishery is principally in the hands 
of fishermen from the United States, who during the 
fishing season employ from 200 to 300 vessels. 

II. HISTORY. 

1663-1807. 

1. —It is claimed by some, though erroneously, that 


408 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

this is the island that was discovered by Cabot in 
1497, and by him called St. John. When France 
established a colony in America called new France, this 
island was included within its boundaries; however, 
if we except Champlain’s description, there is scarcely 
any mention of it until 1663, when it was granted to a 
French captain by the name of Doublat, who held it 
in subordination to a fishing company established at 
the Island of Miscou. It was valued only for its 
fisheries, and to facilitate this industry several unim* 
portant stations were established on its coast. St. John, 
as the island was called, began to emerge from gener¬ 
al obscurity soon after the treaty of 1713, when Nova 
Scotia, being ceded to Britain, a number of the French 
settlers, who could not submit themselves to the Brit¬ 
ish yoke sought refuge and freedom on this island. 
When Cape Breton was captured by the New England 
forces in 1745, St. John shared the same fate; but 
three years later, both were restored to France by the 
treaty of Aix la Chrpelle. After the second reduc¬ 
tion of Louisburg, in 1758, that of St. John again fol¬ 
lowed, when it became permanently annexed to the 
British crown. 

2. —But the French inhabitants of this island, 
numbering at the time four or five thousand, were 
subjected to about the same treatment as their breth¬ 
ren in Nova Scotia. The details of the expulsion are 
not stated, but it appears that some of the inhabitants 
were sent to Canada, some to the southern colonies, 
and others to France ; while it is admitted that many 
contrived to conceal themselves. So complete, how¬ 
ever, was the desolation, that, in 1770, twelve years 
later, only 150 families were found on the island. The 
treaty of 1763 confirmed St. John to the British gov¬ 
ernment of Great Britain. However, several years 
elapsed before measures were taken to promote its 
settlement. 

3. — A strange scheme was that formed by Lord 
Egremont, by which the island was divided into twelve 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 


409 


districts, ruled by as many barons, each of whom was to 
erect a castle on his own property, while that nobleman 
was to preside as lord paramount. This ridiculous 
plan was changed for another not much wiser. In 1767, 
a division was made into sixty-seven townships, of about 
20,000 acres each, which, with some reservations for 
county towns, were granted to individuals who had 
clp,irns upon the government. Their exertions to set¬ 
tle the country, however, were not very effective, and 
when they resolved, as the only means of rendering 
the property valuable, to sell it in small lots, their 
prices were too high; and as their rights to the land 
were conditional, they could not give to settlers that 
kind of tenure which is the most secure. 

4. — In 1770, the proprietors of the island suc¬ 
ceeded in procuring a government separate from that 
of Nova Scotia^ although at the time there were but 
150 families on the island. Mr. Patterson, first ap¬ 
pointed to that office, brought back a number of the 
exiled Acadians — emigrants began to arrive in con¬ 
siderable numbers, and in 1773 a constitution was 
given and the first House of Assembly called. Gov. 
Patterson, however, and Gen. Fanning, who succeeded 
him in 1789, were involved in contests with the pro¬ 
prietors and settlers, who accused them of unlawful 
ambition to procure land for themselves. 

5 . — The name St. John, caused considerable incon¬ 
venience, as the principal towns in New Brunswick 
and Newfoundland had the same name. The name 
was therefore changed to Prince Edward Island, in 
honor of the Duke of Kent, who, while commander 
in America, had promoted some valuable improve¬ 
ments. In 1803, the Earl of Selkirk carried over to 
the island 800 Highlanders. This colony, under the 
wise management of the Earl, soon became very pros¬ 
perous. Following this colony others came, and in 
1840 the Highland Colony numbered about 5,000. 

0 ^ — During the administration of Gov. Desbanes, 
Prince Edward Island progressed rapidly. In 1813 


410 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

this Governor was succeeded by Mr. Smyth, whose 
tyrannical conduct created considerable excitement. 
For several years previous to 1823, he prevented a 
session of the assembly, and when the people took 
measures to petition his removal, he caused them to 
be arrested. Mr. Stewart, the high Sheriff of the col¬ 
ony, having escaped to England via Nova Scotia, 
made known the affairs of the colony to the home 
government, when the Governor was removed and 
Lieut. Col. Keady appointed in his place. This new 
Governor was well received, and in conjunction with 
the assembly he effected useful legislation. In 1831 
Eeady was succeeded' by Col. Young, who adminis¬ 
tered the affairs of the colony until 1836, in which 
year Sir John Harvey was named his successor. Sir 
John gave good satisfaction, but in 1837 he was re¬ 
moved to the government of New Brunswick, and his 
place supplied by Sir Charles A. Fitzroy. Thus con¬ 
tinued the government of the island until it joined the 
Dominion of Canada. 

DOMINION OF CANADA. 

lS(i7-lfi76. 

1. — Having in the foregoing pages brought the 
history of the provinces that now constitute the Do¬ 
minion of Canada down to within a few years of the 
confederation, we may now pass on to notice the his¬ 
tory of this newly formed government, as well as the 
general progress of the industries under its fostering 
care. It is e.xpected that the Dominion government 
will eventually extend its rule over all the British 
possessions in America lying north of the United 
States. It was founded in 1867, by the union of the 
Provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick and 
Nova Scotia. Five years later, or in 1872, it em¬ 
braced, in addition to these four provinces, the Prov¬ 
inces of Manitoba and British Columbia, and the 
Northwest Territory. In 1873 Prince Edward Island 
joined the Dominion, and Newfoundland was prepar¬ 
ing to follow. 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 


411 


2. — The population of the Dominion, exclusive of 
other British possessions, at the present date, 1876, is 
not far short of 4,000,000. The area is about 3,500,- 
000 square miles. There is no state church in the 
Dominion; none in all British America. Persons of 
the Roman Catholic faith number nearly one and a 
half millions. The remaining portion of the popula¬ 
tions are Presbyterians, Anglicans, Wesleyans and 
Methodists, Baptists, Lutherans, Congregationalists, 
etc. The Roman Catholics are in a majority in Que¬ 
bec, and also in New Brunswick. In Ontario the 
Wesleyans are in the majority, while in Nova Scotia 
tlie Presbyterians have a plurality. 

3. — The common school laws of the Dominion 
differ in the different provinces. The schools are 
supported partly by government and partly by self- 
imposed local taxation. The license system for teach¬ 
ers is under the management of the provincial Nor¬ 
mal schools. The schools of Canada are making ex¬ 
cellent progress, and everywhere in the Dominion the 
cause of education is making rapid advancement. 

4. — The government of the Dominion of Canada is 
somewhat similar to that of the mother country. The 
Parliament consists of the Queen of Great Britain, and 
upper house styled the Senate, and a House of Com¬ 
mons. The Queen is represented by a Governor-Gen¬ 
eral, who is appointed by the Crown, and exercises his 
authority with the aid and advice of a council appoint¬ 
ed by him.self. The Senate consists of not more than 
seventy-two members, who are chosen by the Governor- 
General, and hold the appointment for life. The 
House of Commons consists of about 180 members, 
elected by the people. Each of the provinces has its 
local or provincial government, consisting of an Assem¬ 
bly elected by the people, with a Lieutenant Governor 
at'the head of the executive. The troops maintained 
in the Dominion by the government of Great Britain, 
have been reduced to 5,000 men. The militia which 
was organized in 1868 by the first Federal Parliament, 



412 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


consists of all male British subjects between eighteen 
and sixty, divided into an active and reserve force. 
In 1870, the number of men on the rolls was 675,000. 
The naval forces of the Dominion in 1871 consisted of 
eight armed screw steamers, maintained on the great 
lakes and Eiver St. Lawrence, and two coast steamers, 
available as gunboats. 

5. —The Dominion, as we have said, originally in¬ 
cluded the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia 
and New Brunswick. The Legislature of Newfound¬ 
land declared in favor of joining the Dominion, but 
the people, in November, 1869, by a large majority, 
voted against it. In the same year the government of 
the Dominion purchased from the Hudson’s Bay Com¬ 
pany its vast territory. An insurrection of colonists 
and natives, who protested against having their land 
treated as a dependent territory, induced the govern¬ 
ment to organize in 1870, that part of the newly pur¬ 
chased territory which is situated between longitude 
96° and 99° West, and the United States boundary 
line and latitude 50° 38' North, as an independent prov¬ 
ince under the name of Manitoba. The immense un¬ 
organized territory be 3 ^ond the limits of Manitoba is 
called the Northwest Territory. British Columbia was 
received into the Union in March, 1871. 

NEWFOUNDLAND. 

1492-1876. 

1 . — This island was discovered by the Cabots in 
1497. It is a large island in the form of an irregular 
triangle, about 1,000 miles in circumference. On the 
northwestern side, the straits of Belle Isle, about ten 
miles in width, separate it from Labrador; and on the 
southwest it is about fifty miles distant from Cape 
Breton, leaving a passage of that breadth into the Grulf 
of St. Lawrence. The shores are generally bold and 
rugged, the surface mountainous, and the soil barren; 
yet, notwithstanding its scanty internal resources, 
Newfoundland has formed hitherto, in a commercial 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 


413 


view, the most important of all the British possessions 
in America. The surrounding ocean is rich in treas¬ 
ure. Immense fields of ice, detached from the Arctic 
shores, and annually floated down to the neighborhood 
of the island, convey on their surface large herds of 
seal, from which the adventurous seamen draw valu¬ 
able stores of oil. To the east the celebrated bank of 
Newfoundland, composed almost throughout of masses 
of solid rock, forms an extensive fishing ground of 600 
miles in length and 200 in breadth. Here the cod 
fishery, the most extensive fishery in the world, has 
for several centuries been constantly increasing in ex¬ 
tent, and yet not the slightest diminution of its fruit¬ 
fulness has ever been observed. 

* 2 , — Almost immediately after its discovery, its 
shores became celebrated for their fisheries. The Eng¬ 
lish claimed the right of jurisdiction over the island. 
But for a long time the number of British vessels em¬ 
ployed in the vicinity of the island was less than those 
of the French or the Spanish. After several unsuc¬ 
cessful attempts to form a settlement, Mr. Guy, an 
intelligent merchant of Bristol succeeded in inducing 
a number of influential persons at court to engage in 
the undertaking, and, in 1610, having been appointed 
governor of the intended colony, he conveyed thither 
thirty-nine persons, who constructed a dwelling and 
storehouse, and formed the first permanent settlement 
on the island. 

3, — A Catholic colony was established in New¬ 
foundland in 1621, by Sir George Calvert, afterwards 
Lord Baltimore, the founder of Maryland. lie resided 
on the island a considerable time. In 1660, the French 
began to form settlements, which they fortified, show¬ 
ing an evident wish to get possession of the whole 
island. In 1692, their works at Placentia were par¬ 
tially destroyed by the English, but, in 1696, they 
twice attacked St. John, and the second time, having 
gained possession of it, set it on fire. Soon after, they 
reduced all the English stations but two, but the 


414 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


treat}^ of Eyswick, in 1697, terminated the contest, 
and restored every thing to the same state as before 
the commencement of hostilities. 

4. —But the war of the succession, breaking out in 
1702, the colony was, of course, again exposed to at¬ 
tack from the French. In 1705, the British colonists 
were successfully attacked, and, in 1708, St John 
was surprised and completely destroyed, and the 
French became masters of eyery English station but 
one on the island. The successes of the English, how¬ 
ever, on the continent enabled them, at the treaty of 
Utrecht, in 1713, to redeem all their losses in this dis¬ 
tant quarter, and Louis XIY was compelled to yield 
up all his possessions in Newfoundland, but he re¬ 
tained for his subjects the right of erecting huts and 
fishing stages on particular portions of the coast In 
1729, the colony was withdrawn from its nominal de¬ 
pendence on Nova Scotia, from which period, until 
1827, the goyernment of the island was administered 
by nayal commanders appointed to cruise on the fish¬ 
ing station, but who returned to England during the 
winter. Since 1827, the goyernment has been admin¬ 
istered by resident Goyernors; and, in 1832, at the 
earnest solicitation of the inhabitants, a Eepresentatiye 
Assembly was granted them. 

5. — From this time the province has made contin¬ 
ual progress, and will soon take its stand in the Do¬ 
minion, on an equal footing with the other provinces. 

BRITISH COLUMBIA. 

1 . — This province of the Dominion of Canada, not 
before referred to at length, is bounded on the south 
by the United States, on the east by the Eocky Moun¬ 
tains, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean." It in¬ 
cludes the important islands of Queen Charlotte and 
Vancouver. The latter was formerly a separate Brit¬ 
ish colony. British Columbia was united" to the Do¬ 
minion in 1871. There are portions of the province 


KEPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


415 


near the sea where the soil is good and the climate 
mild, though rainy. In the interior the surface is 
rugged and the climate severe. The coast line is char¬ 
acterized by a kind of canals, often v/alled in by 
mountains. Furs are extensively exported. There is 
much valuable timber, and the fisheries will eventually 
become very important There is also much fine 
grazing land, and gold, coal and marble are found in 
promising quantities. The area of the province is es¬ 
timated at 240,000 square miles. The capital is lo¬ 
cated at Victoria. In i874, the population, exclusive 
of Indians was 14,043. The total population was, in 
the same year, estimated at 50,000. The finest harbor 
is at Esquimault The province has an Anglican 
Bishop, who is located at New Westminster. 


THE EEPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 

1. ABORIGINAL HISTORY. 

Prior to the Spanish Conquest. 

1, — Only by a careful analysis of the architectural 
and other remains of a people, can we approach to a 
knowledge of their history in the absence of written 
records or of hieroglyphs which may be deciphered ; 
and, until recently, the buildings found by the Span¬ 
iards in Mexico at the time of the Conquest, have been 
misunderstood as indicating the grandeur of the pal¬ 
aces occupied by monarchs, while the people were ap¬ 
parently homeless and uncared for. The errors of the 
past will serve as beacons to warn us from similar 
dangers. 

2. — When America was first discovered, the bar¬ 
barous tribes that inhabited and possessed the country 
differed considerably in their degrees of civilization. 
Some tribes depended almost entirely upon their suc¬ 
cess in the chase, and others mainly resorted to fishing 
for a subsistence. Other tribes added to such pursuits 
a knowledge of agriculture more or less limited, and 



416 COUNTEIES OF NOETH AMEEICA. 

yet others, now distinguished as Village Indians, had 
attained a high degree of proficiency as builders, unit¬ 
ing therewith some skill in the art of war, great apti¬ 
tude and progress in astronomical researches, much 
success in the management of lands which they had 
brought under cultivation, and so much, or so little, 
development in social life, as is involved in the prac¬ 
tice of living in common. Aboriginal Mexicans were 
of the last named and highest class, but there is no 
reason to conclude that they were in any respect dif¬ 
fering from other tribes save in develQpment. 

3. — The tribes indifferent parts of the continent 
do not appear to have varied from each other more 
than the circumstances by which they were surrounded 
and influenced sufficiently explain, if we take into ac¬ 
count long courses of years operating upon different 
members of one family in various climates, shut off 
from intercourse by the absence of literature until 
long after the main divergences were consummated. 
There is no positive evidence that the Mexicans were 
of the same race with the Indian tribes by which they 
were surrounded, but there is nothing that militates 
decidedly against that conclusion ; and within historic 
times in Europe, the differentiation observable between 
German bands that engaged in war and those of the 
same tribes who were persistently occupied in agricul¬ 
ture and other industries, sufficiently illustrate how 
much greater changes than have been observed on this 
continent could readily arise among peoples of a like 
origin. The traditions of the Mexicans favor the idea 
of peculiar races, but where there is no written history, 
such traditions cannot be accepted as decisive; still 
such contributions toward knowledge are valuable and 
cannot fail to be interesting. 

4. — Mexican hieroglyphics are said to show that 
the Toltecas, or Toltecs, were expelled from their own 
country, somewhere in the north, which they name as 
Tollan, in the year A. D. 472. The 3 '' are supposed to 
have spent 104 years from that time as a migratory 


I 


t 




CfiOSSIKG 7HS HAPIDAN—GRANT'S TELEGRAM* 



STONEWALL JACKSON AT BULL RUN. 


























































































KEPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


417 


people, before they ^settled down at a place about fifty 
miles east of the present City of Mexico, in the year 
576, and continued there twenty years, moving a little 
way to the west at the end of that time to found a city, 
called after the home from which their ancestors had 
been driven, Tollan, or Tula. 

5. — Probably an elective monarchy or chieftainship 
governed the wanderers in their movements from place 
to place; but it seems probable that the monarchy be¬ 
came centered in one family about or soon after their 
settlement, as it is claimed that monarchical institu¬ 
tions prevailed for almost four hundred years, from 
A. D. 667 until the people, having largely increased in 
numbers and wealth, were suddenly smitten by famine 
and pestilence, so that their cities were almost depopu¬ 
lated. 

6. — If Cortez and his followers, on their arrival in 
Mexico in 1519, had been capable of understanding 
the value of hieroglyphics, and the necessit 3 ^ for merci¬ 
ful behavior toward the conquered people, it is possi¬ 
ble that we should possess much information from 
which we are now shut out; but many documents 
were destroyed, and the people were so misused that 
the more learned fled the country, or were killed when 
Montezuma fell; hence, all that can be gathered con¬ 
cerning the Toltecs is largely conjectural. The sym¬ 
bols from which the ruin and dispersion of the nation 
is read implies that a spirit of evil appeared to them in 
the midst of one of their feasts, and suffocated them in 
his gigantic embrace, being followed by a child whose 
ulcerated head conveys the idea of pestilence super¬ 
vening upon famine. Acting upon the advice of the 
evil one, whose warning had nearly destro^^ed their 
race, the remainder abandoned the country of their 
ancestors’ adoption and their own birth, and were re¬ 
ceived with kindness among the other tribes or nations 
bordering upon Mexico, towards the end of the eleventh 
century. 

7. — The Chichemecas occupied the territory from 

27 




418 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


■which the Toltecs had departed, and they are said to 
have occupied one year and six months in their jour¬ 
ney from the north, about one hundred years after the 
plague and the famine had driven off their predeces¬ 
sors. There still remained a fragment of the Toltecs, 
and these, intermarrying with the new comers, gave 
them an insight into the arts and sciences which had 
for so many centuries flourished in their cities. The 
information and aid thus imparted changed the Chi- 
chemecas from hunters and wanderers into an agricul¬ 
tural people. Monarchical rule or chieftainship had 
prevailed among them prior to the time of their fusion 
with the fragment of the Toltecs. Another tribe, the 
Acolhuans, followed the Chichemecas from the north, 
and the two peoples engaged in petty aggressive wars 
for many years, until the advent of the Aztecs prepared 
the way for more satisfactory progress. 

8. — The Aztecs, as described by the hierogU^phics, 
wandered for fifty-six years, making brief stays at dif¬ 
ferent spots on the banks of the Gila, or San Francisco 
Eiver, where ruins are pointed out as having owed 
their origin to this people. Their home was a long 
way to the north of the Gulf of California, and their 
departure, in the year 1160, was due to a command 
from one of their gods. They made one of their settle¬ 
ments at Zumpango, in the Valley of Mexico, on the 
eastern shore of Lake Zumpango, but that was not the 
end of their journey. 

9 , — Their next settlement was made about two 
hundred and fifty miles from Chihuahua and about 
nine hundred and fifty miles northwest from the city 
of Mexico. The existence of considerable remains of 
a vast building known as the Casa Grande, which 
were noticed at the time of the conquest, marks this 
spot as one of the Aztec halting places, but the evi¬ 
dence is not conclusive. Culiacan was their next rest¬ 
ing place south of Casa Grande on the banks of the 
Culiacan river, which enters the Gulf of California in 
the 24° of north latitude. During their stay here they 


REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


419 


built a wooden idol, intended to represent their God, 
under whose directions they were wandering, and four 
of their priests were appointed to carry this image in a 
chair of reeds upon their shoulders in all their travels 
after that time. The bearers of the burden were so¬ 
laced by being called servants of God. 

10 . —The Aztecs generally stayed at Culiacan, but 
one tribe of the six of which the main body was com¬ 
posed, departing thence with their deity arrived in the 
Talley of Mexico in the year 1216, where after a brief 
term of hospitable treatment they were enslaved by a 
prince who claimed the country in which they were 
staying and held them as slaves in default of the pay¬ 
ment of tribute money. 

, 11 . — The tribe, when at length released from 

slavery, continued their course of travel, being guided 

1 in their journey by an eagle, until the year 1325, when 
having arrived near the borders of a lake, their friendly 
guide reposed upon an Indian fig tree and was found 
dead. This was accepted as an indication that they 
had come to the end of their pilgrimage, and, having 
erected an altar for their religious rites, they proceeded 
to build a city which was called IMexico, from the God 
of war, l^fexitti ; but the name originally given to ther 
city was Tenochitlan. 

12 . — From this time there is something more to be 
relied upon than doubtful traditions and still more 
doubtful interpretations of hieroglyphics, as the build¬ 
ings of the Mexicans tell the story of their lives, and 
illustrate their institutions for the one hundred and 
ninety-four years that intervened before the arrival of 
Hernando Cortez. Their wealth increased and they 
extended their dominion by wars, marriages and alli¬ 
ances of various kinds, over the descendants of the 
tribes with which their ancestors had commenced the 
long journey, and over various other tribes. 

13. — Elective chieftains ruled the tribe until long 
after the settlement commenced at Mexico, but with 
the increase of wealth came also the desire for a more 





420 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


settled form of government, and the vigor which is sel¬ 
dom found save in an individual will, consequently 
the responsibility devolved upon a king, from whom 
Montezuma came ninth in succession, being chosen by 
the people from the family which had come to be rec¬ 
ognized as royal. Necessarily all the details of these 
events are liable to misinterpretation from the hiero¬ 
glyphics, but the main facts are vouched for by infor¬ 
mation from other sources which were available when 
Spanish writers turned their attention to this subject 
in the brightest portion of Spanish history from the 
days of Columbus to the death of Cervantes. 

14. — The Toltecas were still distinguished among 
the people by whom they were surrounded, being more 
learned and skillful, so that when men were found 
who were cunning workmen in the precious metals, or 
who were specially versed in astronomy, they were 
known as Toltecas. Their knowledge of the law upon 
which eclipses could be calculated was certainly re¬ 
markable, and it is said that they had originated the 
system of adding one day in four years to the civil 
year in order to compensate the difference between the 
civil and the solar year, about a century before the birth 
of Christ. The evidence upon which this statement is 
hazarded is very incomplete, but there is no essential 
improbability in the assertion. 

15. — Painting was, with the Mexicans, history as 
well as art, and it was moreover a great factor in the 
enforcement of religious instruction and moral as well 
as social, and in this accomplishment the Toltecas 
were the teachers of the people. When the Spaniards 
under Cortez became masters of Mexico, they looked 
upon the paintings which adorned the temples and 
public buildings as parts of a gross system of idolatry, 
and therefore committed to the flames vast contribu¬ 
tions to history, astronomical lore, legislative enact¬ 
ments and mythological ideas which might have enabled 
shrewd thinkers in our own day, to have discovered 
by subtle analysis, whence came the nations that origi- 


REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


421 


nallj overspread this continent. Their calendar with 
the positions of the stars, the moon’s changes and the 
recurrence of eclipses, were among the items embodied 
in the pictures upon which the Spaniards vented their 
ignorant, pious rage. 

16. — Happily the records were not all destroyed, 
but what remains renders it the more to be regretted 
that the pictured history is incomplete. One collec¬ 
tion of paintings shows as nearly as pictured writings 
can render such matters clear, the history of Mexico; 
subject always to the chance of misconception on the 
part of the translator. Another set describes the 
tribute moneys paid by conquered nations and cities. 
The domestic, military and political institutions of 
Mexico appear in another set, and every map was a 
picture setting forth the positions of cities, towns, 
rivers, boundaries, and outlines of coasts. Cortez saw 
paintings on skins, on the inner surface of the bark 
of trees, suitably prepared, on paper made of aloe 
leaves, by processes rudely resembling the earlier 
modern methods, and on cloth made from the fibre 
of aloes and palms. In the schools and in the 
homes of the Mexicans, their children were taught in 
numberless songs, the meaning of every picture, or of 
such pictures as were thought essential, so that every 
generation became versed in the learning of the nation. 

17, — The rage of the Spaniards was more violent¬ 
ly excited by statues than by paintings, and precisely 
in that direction the genius of the Toltecas and Mex¬ 
icans found its highest point. Sculpture, Mosiac work 
and the castings of metals had been carried to great 
perfection, but all such evidences of ingenuity and 
grace called for the energy of destruction in which 
the conquerors excelled. It is asserted that when the 
first church was built in Mexico, many thousands of 
these statues were destroyed to make the foundation, 
and the inexhaustible zeal of the Monks, stimulating 
the still more ignorant hate of the soldiery, left few 
relics worthy of notice. 





422 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


18. — Charles Y, Emperor of Spain and Glermany, 
to whom numerous presents in gold and silver work 
were sent by Hernando Cortez, as indications of the 
wealth of the country and of the skill of the con¬ 
quered people, was transported with astonishment, and 
the jewelers, to whom these cunning productions were 
exhibited, declared that they were inimitable in 
Europe. The Mexicans were alike skillful in casting 
and in chasing the precious metals, and this branch of 
art was ascribed specially to the favor of their Glods. 
Under the rule of the conquerors there remained but 
few evidences of taste on the part of the people, and 
wherever escape seemed possible, the Mexicans and 
Toltecas escaped from the intolerable rule of Spain. 

19. — It might be supposed that the richness of the 
material employed was one reason why in a coarse and 
rude age the art of the Mexicans and Toltecas was 
highly praised, but their skill in feather work was just 
as marked and successful, as their fine mosaics had all 
the effect of paintings, so exquisitely was every feather 
placed in regard to color and shade. 'The Spaniards 
were astonished when they found Indians able to excel 
their painters in works of art with such materials as 
feathers only. The extent of ]\Iexican and Toltecan 
acquirements in science found no appreciation among 
the soldiery, but art appeals more immediately to the 
senses, 

20-The Mexicans or Aztecs traced their course 

towards the city which they founded by the buildings 
which they raised and left when they passed on, and 
in the city itself massive buildings were found consist¬ 
ing of one, two and three stories built on terraces, and 
having flat roofs which served as terraces from which 
the next stories rose in succession. Those buildings, 
supposed at one time to have been the palaces of great 
people and rulers, are now found to have been the 
common dwellings inhabited by the mass of the com¬ 
munity of every rank. Usually these dwellings could 
be traversed from one compartment to another par- 


REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


423 


tially within and wholly by means of trapdoors in the 
terrace roofs. Sometimes there were as many as five 
thousand people in one such dwelling erected on three 
sides of a quadrangular court raised from the surface 
of the country by a system of terraces. The lower 
parts of the buildings had no openings save windows 
high from the court yard ; ladders reached from with¬ 
out to the terrace roof, and in the event of an attack, 
those ladders withdrawn gave almost complete security 
to the defenders of such a dwelling. The materials 
used were of a kind that defied fire, and the glistening 
whiteness of the walls seen from a distance, made the 
Spaniards believe that the city was built of frosted 
silver. The cleanliness of the Mexicans was as marked 
as the firmness and majesty of their architecture. 

21. — Extensive aqueducts, conveying water a dis¬ 
tance of two miles, attest the high degree of civilization 
attained by the Mexicans. These works were con¬ 
structed of stone and cement. The population of 
^lexico is almost entirely matter for conjecture, and 
the conquerors used such expressions as would justify 
the assumption that there were many hundred thou¬ 
sands of inhabitants in the kingdom, but the lowest 
and most moderate computation consistent with ascer¬ 
tained facts, places the number at one hundred thou¬ 
sand. The civilization and progress in art culture as 
well as in science, which we find evidenced in the sev¬ 
eral cities, cannot be imagined as parts of the develop¬ 
ment of a scanty population and village life. 

22. — The King exercised what in modern phrase¬ 
ology might be termed a limited monarchy. The 
right to elect had, during nearly four centuries, been 
narrowed to six of the most powerful chiefs, including 
those of Tezcuco and Tacuba, with whom the privilege 
had become hereditary, and all the more important 
acts of Montezuma were submitted for confirmation to 
a council of the principal chiefs. Practically, the idea 
of chieftainship remained almost entire, and in their 
government as well as in their homes, the nation was 




424 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


communal and democratic. There were but few 
changes in their form of government so far as can be 
ascertained from the time of the foundation of Mexico 
until the death of Montezuma. 

23.—We cannot too distinctly keep before our 
eyes tbe tribal institutions of chieftainship when con¬ 
sidering the constitution of the Mexican government. 
The chiefs or nobility held a kind of feudal state, 
each being possessed of territories ample for all pur¬ 
poses, taken from other tribes, or held under certain 
conditions as to improvement, and certain titles indi¬ 
cated the relation of the chief in every Ccise to the 
community with which he was immediately identified. 
The idea of the family permeated all the tribes and 
tbe nation. Slaves might be taken from other nations 
and held in bondage, but so far as the Mexicans them¬ 
selves were concerned, their labors were almost en¬ 
tirely voluntary. European writers, knowing nothing 
of society except as they found it in their own country, 
where oppressed peoples were just emerging from the 
feudal condition, to become subjects of the several 
monarchies, with little improvement, unless to change 
masters is a relief, have applied the limitations of 
their own condition to Mexican society, and have 
arrived at most erroneous conclusions in consequence. 
Hence, we are told that the people occupied a most 
humiliating position, and the condition of those who 
were held in bondage, having been taken prisoners in 
the warlike expeditions of the time, has been stated as 
that of the lower rank of the Mexicans themselves. 
By studying the condition of the Indian tribes of to¬ 
day, in those positions in which they have attained the 
best development, it will be seen that such conditions 
of servitude are not consistent with the maintenance 
of manly vigor upon which the actual existence of the 
nation continually depended in the contests with sur¬ 
rounding tribes. Instances of personal tyranny, perhaps, 
may have been noticed, but circumstances were not of 
such a character as would permit of their growing 


REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


425 


into a system of oppression. Social obligations were 
rigorously observed, and the language displays much 
refinement in this respect, but in the main, where war 
continued to be the basis of society, the fighting men 
could not be socially degraded below the men whom, 
they followed successfully in their forays or defensive 
operations. 

24. — Where election, within certain limits, de¬ 
termined what individual should reign, and what acts 
should have authority, the rule of the monarch was 
necessarily unostentatious as a rule ; but the Spaniards 
claim that !^^ontezuma had converted his administra¬ 
tion into a pure despotism, reducing all his subjects to 
a state of slavery, a statement impossible of realization 
among people self defended and not overridden by 
standing armies. The writings of the Spanish monk, 
Clavigero, illustrate the manner in which such ideas 
have arisen. 

25. — The form of the Mexican communal resi¬ 
dence or pueblo has already been given, and the size 
of some of the pueblos was such as that even six 
thousand people could be lodged therein. This 
building, probably constructed upon a detailed plan, 
determined upon at first, would be erected only as 
circumstances required. The mound intended to hold 
a pueblo, that would lodge six thousand ultimately, 
would be commenced when only a tithe of that num¬ 
ber required accommodation, and each succeeding 
increase 'would build on a section in accordance with 
the system observed, every compartment being the 
property of the builders and their successors. Their 
fishing, hunting, and warlike expeditions 'were also 
prosecuted in common, and the common stock of pro¬ 
vision for each compartment was cooked at common 
fires in the court yard, sufficient in number to meet 
the regulated demands of each family or circle. The 
sovereign and his council of chiefs occupied parts of 
such common dwellings as therein only was safety 
against the assaults of predatory wandering tribes and 
hostile neighbors. 



426 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


• 26. — Spanish writers assume that the vast pueblos 
instead of being a common residence for all classes, 
were palaces of kings and nobles, in which all the 
people that assembled in their respective homes were 
courtiers, dependents and slaves, doing daily homage 
to their masters. It did not occur to them to inquire 
how so many sj^stematic idlers could be fed, or they 
must have seen that a community so cursed would 
necessarily die of inanition, if their weakness did not 
tempt incursions and conquest. Clavigero speaks of 
hundreds of feudatory lords in the antechambers of 
the king; having been led by the cursory observa¬ 
tions of the soldiers and monks, who first saw the 
facts from the outside world, to describe in detail just 
such conditions of life as have been observed among 
the Creek Indians, Iroquois and other savages ; the 
practice of living in common. This communal exist¬ 
ence, which was consistent with habits of industry 
and economy, was misunderstood to represent a whole 
nation of courtiers and attendants living in an inex¬ 
plicable manner, without settled industries, waiting 
upon the smile of the monarch. The Ilode-no-sote or 
long house of the Iroquois, resembled the pueblos of 
the Mexicans, in being the common home of numer¬ 
ous related groups, but each compartment had a fire¬ 
place ; an arrangement probably suggested by climatic 
differences. The Creeks built their houses in clusters, 
the inhabitants of each cluster living and eating in 
common. Such facts could be multiplied to an im¬ 
mense extent, but enough has been said to illustrate 
the common practice.. 

27. — The information supplied by such writers as 
Clavigero, as to the domestic customs of the Mexicans, 
must be discarded as readers become more conversant 
with actual facts; but it may be as well to observe 
that he asserts that the women of the court w^ere as 
numerous as the men, a statement by no means im¬ 
probable, although the safety of such an immense 
seraglio as he imagines and reports, guarded only 


EEPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 427 

by noble matrons, may well be matter of genuine 
doubt. 

28. —The homely dresses worn by the nobility 
and the courtiers when in the palace can be very read¬ 
ily understood, when we see that the pueblo was the 
so called palace, in which every man or woman was at 
home, and beyond the necessity for pompous display. 
The forms and ceremonies used in addressing^ Monte- 
zuma are the more suspicious, because they resemble 
the customs that prevailed among European sover¬ 
eigns at that time. The kings, to whom the Spaniards 
paid court, dined almost in public, as did those of 
France and Englnnd at that era, and when it had 
been found that Montezuma was in the habit of dining 
in his reception room, that circumstance was quoted 
as evidence of a somewhat similar regal condition in 
Mexico. 

29. — The details given as to Montezuma’s vessels 
of gold and silver, and choice earthenware of Chohila, 
are only in part apocryphal; and the description of 
the extent of Montezuma’s feast, the number of dishes 
and attendants that waited the pleasure of the monarch, 
covering the floor of a great hall, is only another in¬ 
stance of life misunderstood, by an observer net skilled 
in comprehending an entirely new phenomenon. 
Every dish was accompanied V>y a chafing dish, that it 
might not grow cold, a very natural precaution when 
the common meal had to be conveyed, every day, 
from the fire in the open court to the common room. 
The Spaniards under Cortez saw every event with 
eyes and minds preoccupied by their own customs, 
hence the misapprehension which is unravelled, when 
the customs of Indian tribes are used as the key to 
open the secret of Mexican social existence. 

30. — Monte.zuma is said to have indicated always 
the dishes chosen by him, before the nobles proceeded 
to consume the remainder; and it is noted as a re¬ 
markable circumstance, that he was waited upon by 
persons of both sexes during his repasts, as also that 






428 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


dwarves, jesters, and deformed persons, were retained 
to amuse him with their remarks, when the music 
temporarily lulled in the intervals of his daily meal. 
The statement as to dwarves and jesters is only open 
to suspicion because precisely similar customs had 
been in force all over Europe for some centuries when 
the story was first told ; still there is no element of’ 
improbability in the narration. 

31. — Clavigero probably believed all that he stated 

as to the Mexicans, but he wrote a long time after the 
events and customs described by him had passed' 
aw^ay, and all his information came through doubtful ti 
channels; hence the story that Montezuma habituallyT 
traveled in a palanquin, supported on the shoulders ofj| 
the nobility, that carpets were carried from place to f 
place, in order that his royal feet might never touch* 
the earth, and that his subjects stood still, with theirT 
eyes closed, while his canopied palanquin pa.ssed by, * 
may be accepted as an exaggerated version of some- ^ 
thing actually seen. The extravagance or the despot- V 
ism of one monarch may have found extraordinary \ 
expression in a ridiculous state; but such exhibitions 1 
could hardly have crystallized into custom, in the / 
course of less than four centuries, of an elective Mon- jj 
archy, or Chieftanship, among a warlike people, hardy d 
enough to have placed the yoke of servitude, or* 
tribute, upon the tribes by wdiich they were sur-1 
rounded. * 

32. — There are evidences that in their warlike 
boasting the Mexicans did not widely differ from other 
Indian tribes, and it is asserted that they were canni¬ 
bals, as the Fijians are to-day, to the extent of eating’ 
the flesh of prisoners taken in war. Their religious! 
worship, although refined in some particulars, required- 
terrible sacrifices of human life, and it was perhaps in 
order to satisfy that demand that wars continued to be, 
waged against other tribes ; but the history of the peo-^ 
pie comes to us through hands so little qualified to an-| 
alyze contemporary statements that it is matter for' 








EEPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


420 


most legitimate doubt. The statement that all the 
I prisoners taken in battle were sacrificed is irnmedi- 
atel}^ contradicted by the fact that some were retained 
in a condition of servitude. 

—The Aztecs are credited with having com¬ 
menced the practice of offering human sacrifices to the 
Gods, as the Toltecas and Chichemecas are said to 
have been clear of that horrible practice, but at this 
distance of time, and with such mediums for the con¬ 
veyance of information it is n(jt wise to pronounce 
I dogmatically. The number of victims offered as sac¬ 
rifices cannot fail to have been overstated by even the 
most moderate of the writers usually quoted, but we 
can do nothing better than repeat their estimates with 
I an expression of prudent doubt. Chivigero vsays not 
less than 20,000; Zumaraga, the first Bishop of Mexi¬ 
co, says that more than that number were annually 
sacrificed in the city of Mexico alone; Acosta says 
that there were two days on which 5,000 and 20,000 
were respectively sacrificed ; and Gomara quotes other 
writers to show that the aggregate exceeded 50,000 an¬ 
nually. Such diversities of statement tend to show 
that there were no reliable data upon which to base the 
several stories. 

34, — The Temple of the Sun which is said to have 
been consecrated by the immediate predecessor of Mon¬ 
tezuma is supposed to have attracted 6,000,000 of 
people to witness the sacrifice of 60,000 victims. It is 
very evident that no such number of persons could 
have been attracted, lodged and fed during the ceremo¬ 
nial, and it is almost inevitable that the numbers were 
grossly exaggerated in both respects. Beyond all 
doubt the people were bowed down beneath a system 
more or less idolatrous, administered by an order of 
priests whose authority was secured by the ability of 
the learned men to overawe the ruder multitude by oc¬ 
casional displays of their power ; but sacrifices such as 
have been named would have depleted the nation. 





430 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


II. SPANISH RECORD IN MEXICO. 

1519-180S. 

1 , — Hernando Cortez, the conqueror of Mexico, 
was a soldier of fortune under Velasquez, who con¬ 
quered Cuba in 1511, and after that event had been 
consummated, the commander dispatched his subaltern 
with an expedition to Mexico in the month of Febru¬ 
ary, 1519. Cortez had only a small force, but in or¬ 
der to compel his men to fight desperately, he is said 
to have destroyed his ships immediately upon landing 
at Vera Cruz. By combining with the native tribes 
that were inimical to Mexico the conquest was effected 
and the sovereignty was vested in the Spanish King. 
The proceedings of Cortez were so unsatisfactory to 
Velasquez that another officer was sent to supersede 
him with a force more considerable than his own ; but 
Cortez fought and vanquished Narvaez with his thou¬ 
sand men and persuaded most of the soldiers to enlist 
under his flag. Cortez was nominated Governor and 
Captain General by the court of Spain in 1522, and 
continued with some changes, and with one break 
caused by a visit to Europe in 1528, to administer the 
affairs of the colony until the year 1540. 

2. — The Spaniards were moved by two desires, to 
win territory for the King, and to win souls from idol¬ 
atry; but unfortunately their missionary zeal had not 
the effect of making their conduct kindly toward the 
people whom they conquered. The Catholic faith in¬ 
troduced from Spain was rigidly upheld, and it is 
claimed that 4,000,000 of the natives were induced or 
compelled to give in their adhesion to Christianity as 
thus represented within a few years; but the change 
w^as only nominal, and the people degenerated. Coro¬ 
nado mentions that when he had successfully prose¬ 
cuted an expedition against a native cit}^ the con¬ 
quered people gathered up such of their possessions 
as could be transported, and fled from the dominion of 
Spain. With a wide range of country before them, 


REPUl^LIC OF MEXICO. 


431 


the Indians preferred the wilds with liberty rather 
than cities and oppression. 

3. — Half responsible Governors and their subordi¬ 
nates constituted what was known as colonial govern¬ 
ment in Mexico. The conquerors held the natives as 
bondmen, and made life hateful by their exactions. 
The influence of Bartolome de las Casas alone tended 
to soften the- condition of the Mexicans but his career 
as Bishop of Chiapa ended in 1551. In spite of his 
intervention they were still held as serfs and com¬ 
pelled to work in the fields, or in the mines, under 
taskmasters nominated by the governors. The denun¬ 
ciation of Spanish cruelty made by Las Casas upon 
his return to his native country produced an excellent 
effect upon the mind of the Emperor, Chas. Y, who 
was also King of Spain. 

4 . —Vassalage slowly won its way over serfdom 
until the beginning of the 18th century, when the 
cheapness of native labor induced the abandonment of 
the last relics of slavery but the people were tyran¬ 
nized over in a cruel and destructive manner by laws 
in which they were not consulted, and by magistrates 
who could do almost as they pleased. Intermarriage 
with the white population was strictly prohibited, fire¬ 
arms could not be owned by the pure Mexican race, 
nor could they enter into any contract for an amount 
exceeding $50. 

5. — The population of Mexico, which had been 
noted for industry and skill, degenerated under Span¬ 
ish rule, as an almost inevitable consequence of the 
cruel system persevered in, until they were seldom 
seen in the cities, except as mendicants, or little bet¬ 
ter ; and on the lands over which they were at one 
time unquestiond masters, they were barely able to 
procure subsistence by reason of the want of irriga¬ 
tion and the general badness of the location to which 
they were limited. 

6. — Spain is not successful in the management of 
its colonies, and the descendants of the conquerors 



432 


COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


were as little benefited by the system in operation as 
those who owed their birth to the native stock. Court 
favor continued as long as Spain held sway in Mexico, 
to determine the appointments of Viceroys and other 
officials, who were selected in Europe, and it provoked 
painful comment long before the revolution, that the 
American born Spaniard was never preferred to any 
office that could be filled by a man sent direct from 
Spain. The rulers thus sent had no interest in com¬ 
mon with the native population, nor could they hope 
for a continuance of favor for their families, should 
they remain in Mexico. A system of caste was thus 
superimposed upon the other evil conditions observ¬ 
able in Mexican society. 

7. — The representative of Spain in Mexico cus¬ 
tomarily returned to Spain at the termination of his 
career in office, a very wealthy person, although his 
salary rarely exceeded $60,000, and the style in which 
he was expected to live, maintaining the retinue of a 
king, could not be supported upon that amount of 
money. Notwithstanding that drawback, the office 
was at all times in request, and only great favorites 
could procure the nomination as Viceroy. The deficit 
in actual salary was made up by organized malfeas¬ 
ance in office. Titles and distinctions much sought 
for among colonists could only be procured as a rule 
through the recommendation of the governor, and he 
must be paid for all such marks of favor. Commer¬ 
cial privileges were also paid for in a manner some¬ 
what similar, and the monopolies granted to individu¬ 
als and companies, to deal in s6me particular articles 
of foreign rnamifacture, were made conducive to the 
wealth of the Viceroy as well as to the enrichment of 
the treasury of Spain. Many offices were held with¬ 
out salary in consequence of the facilities thus acquir¬ 
ed for levying exactions upon the public. 

8. — The law had forbidden intermarriages between 
the Indian and white populations, but the Creoles 
were very largely tinctured with Indian blood, and 


REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


43r> 

that race found just as little success attending their 
efforts to procure justice as the Indians themselves. 
Changes were made sometimes in good faith by the 
Court of Spain, but it was the misfortune of that gov¬ 
ernment, that it had no means of ascertaining the 
actual condition of the colonies, and that it would not 
confer upon the people self government. The Euro¬ 
pean Spaniard enjoyed a distinction of caste that 
secured him attention and preference, where the Mex¬ 
ican of pure white descent, could scarcely obtain a 
hearing, and the name Creole was one of the lowest 
expressions of contempt, on the part of the ruling 
caste. 

9 . — The Spanish government is supposed to have 
given countenance to such distinctions, on the princi¬ 
ple that is conveyed in the maxim “ Divide and Con¬ 
quer.” Those who were upheld by European author¬ 
ity were calculated upon as the chief defense of Spain 
in the colonies, and there was a continuous and per¬ 
sistent effort to maintain the dominion of ignorance 
over the bulk of the population. The sum total of 
all the teaching permitted went to show that Spain 
was the greatest monarchy on earth, and that ^lexico 
was wmll placed in becoming her dependency. Schools 
were seldom permitted as learning was dangerous to 
the ruling caste, and was supposed to be unsuited to 
colonial life. The City of Mexico was specially favor¬ 
ed in being permitted to use a printing press, a privi¬ 
lege not extended to other cities and colonies, but the 
operation of the boon was the subject of very severe 
restrictions. 

10 . — Spain, always jealous of her naval suprem¬ 
acy and commercial advantages, rigidly insisted upon 
the retention of all trade with her colonies. The pro¬ 
duce that sought a market in Europe must be shipped 
in Spanish vessels to Spanish ports, and the supplies 
in exchange must come through the same channels. 
Their ports were closed against foreigners as rigidly as 
those of China and Japan before this century. No 

28 


434 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


foreign ship could enter the port or trade with the peo 
pie, and the native born Spanish-American w^as not 
allowed to own or charter a ship. Such articles as 
could be manufactured in Spain, however badly, were 
not to be manufactured in the colonies, and even the 
cultivation of vines and olives in Mexico was forbid¬ 
den, because Spain sought a monopoly in that direc¬ 
tion. The produce that was not prohibited was still 
often placed under limitations, often determined by the 
tonnage of Spanish vessels available for exportation, 
and the enterprise of Spanish mariners. Under such 
distortion of paternal government the people were 
ground down into the bitterest dregs of poverty, even 
while mines of gold and silver were in full operation. 

11 . — France and England secured some commer¬ 
cial privileges at intervals during the eighteenth cen¬ 
tury, which partially opened the ports of the Spanish 
colonies. France opened the vmy during the war of 
the Spanish succession, and in the year 1713, under a 
treaty signed at Utrecht, Great Britain obtained the 
privilege of sending one ship of 500 tons burthen every 
year to the fair of Porto Bello. How narrow had been 
the restriction can best be seen in the small concession 
thus grudgingly wrung out. The colonies were next 
allowed to trade with each other, but it was not until 
1774 that such a small measure of liberty was perfected 
upon infinitesimal beginnings. In the year 1778, an¬ 
other instalment of freedom was permitted to take 
effect. Seville had been the only port of Spain in 
which Mexican produce could be sold, or from which 
supplies for the colonies could be obtained; the Se¬ 
villian monopoly was broken, so that the colonists 
could consign their shipments to either of seven differ¬ 
ent ports, but the market was still circumscribed 
strictly, as no foreigners could enter into competition 
with Spain, and the seas of South America were as 
strongly held against any form of commercial enter¬ 
prise as the waning power of Spain would permit. 

12. — Charles IV became King of Spain in 1788, 


REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


435 


and Godoy, the faithless Prime Minister, favored by 
the Queen, rendered the Spanish rule in Mexico more 
odious than ever before. Every office was for sale at 
a price named in money or in some disgraceful employ¬ 
ment, and neither talent nor character were recommen¬ 
dations, unless the lowest influences were resorted to 
for the purpose of securing appointments or promotion. 
The judges were men without principle or capacity as 
a rule, and if a man who possessed ability was ap¬ 
pointed, so much the worse for the people against whom 
his talents were used. Every fresh arrival was more 
hungry and necessitous than the person whom he dis¬ 
placed, and the community suffered an always increas¬ 
ing drain upon its narrowing resources. 

13.— AVhen Napoleon removed the Spanish dynas¬ 
ty from the throne of Spain, and substituted his brother 
Joseph, the rottenness of the superseded court affronted 
every nostril, and although the condition of Mexico 
did not enter into the calculations of the French Em¬ 
peror, it naturally suggests itself here as one of the 
chief considerations why a change of any kind must, 
have been a source of hope. The aspects of society" 
there visible indicated a state of suffering that must- 
revolt, unless relief could be found in some other and 
easier form. The Creole class, most nearly related to- 
Spain of all the native born population, stood apart 
from the Spanish born caste of office holders, indignant 
because of the wrongs which they had been called upon 
to endure. There was no press and but few schools, 

! or the reign of ignorance and submission could not 
have endured so long. Peculation and other frauds 
I pervaded every department of the government; com- 
; rnerce, in fetters, could give no support to the people; 

I manufactures had long been interdicted ; and beneath 
! all these disturbing causes there reposed, with an al- 
' ways increasing share of supineness, first, an aboriginal 
I population, degraded below the average Indian, and 
I above him the several varieties of half-bred popula- 
I tion, ignorant enough to be used by the first able man- 
I ipulator that could arouse their passions. 


436 


COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


|IIL THROWING OFF THE YOKE. 

1808 - 1820 . 

1 . —We have seen what was the condition of Mex¬ 
ico immediiitely before tlie abdication of Charles TV 
of Spain, and the deposition of his son Ferdinand of¬ 
fered an opportunity for casting off the European 
Yoke; and we will now briefly examine the means 
whereby the disruption became possible. 

2. — The favorite Godoy and the guilty Queen of 
Spain had become so much abhorred by the people, 
and the old King now almost sixty years of age was 
so much an object of contempt, that in the face of re¬ 
cent developments in France, even Spain might have 
been tempted to rise in rebellion ; more especially when 
it appeared that the son, Prince Ferdinand, was willing 
to direct the movement. Probably those domestic 
troubles were being skillfully manipulated, by the 
secret agents of the French court; certainly no other 
combination of circumstances could have so complete¬ 
ly assisted Napoleon in his designs upon that King¬ 
dom. The King, disturbed by strife within the palace, 
was ill prepared to cope with threatened revolution 
outside, and on the 19th of March, 1808, he abdicated 
the throne in Ferdinand’s favor, who was at once pro¬ 
claimed King, as Ferdinand VIL 

3. — Ferdinand only reigned about six'weeks, when 
he was compelled to resign by Napoleon. The French 
Emperor had long been an interested observer of Span¬ 
ish affairs, and as soon as the abdication had been made 
public, his troops crossed the frontiers as in the inter¬ 
ests of oi’der, and Murat, wdth an army, entered the 
capitol. The old King relieved from the former pres¬ 
sure and probably influenced by Godoy now revoked 
his abdication expecting that Napoleon would assist 
him to remount the throne. The Imperial Mediator 
who had already satisfied himself as to the unfitness 
of either of the family to govern a Kingdom, and who 
had secured the services of Godoy in his interest, ar- 


REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


437 


ranged for the whole of the Spanish ro 3 ^al family to 
meet him at Bayonne ; where daring an interview on 
the 28th of April, 1808, he induced or compelled both 
father and son to renounce the crown ; and when that 
act had been completed on the first day of May, the 
parties to the compact were consigned for safe custody 
to the Chateau of Valencay, where they remained un¬ 
til March, 1814. Joseph Bonaparte was proclaimed 
King in the stead of either Ferdinand or Charles, and 
at once assumed his duties. 

4. — Spain would have risen against Charles with 
much pleasure, and was not very sorry to be quit of 
Ferdinand; but the manner in which the change had 
been effected, and the substitution of the Corsican, 
Joseph Bonaparte, aided by French bayonets, proved 
too much for Spanish pride. The people by their 
leaders established a Central Junta, and immediately 
thereafter a regency, which was set up as the only le¬ 
gitimate government of the Kingdom during the im¬ 
prisonment of the Monarch. The Regency really ad¬ 
ministered a Democratic form of government in the 
name of Ferdinand, and the idea took hold upon the 
bulk of the people. 

5. — The knowledge that such events had transpired 
in Europe was in itself a revolution for Mexico, as, until 
that moment there had been no doubt in the popular 
mind, that the Spanish monarchy would endure to the 
end of time. The Spanish Monarch and not Spain had 
always claimed the fealty of Mexico, and in that fact 
was found a reason why neither Joseph on the one 
hand nor the Regency Junta on the other could be ac¬ 
cepted as the sovereign, so that there was an admir¬ 
able opening for the people to assume the management 
of their own affairs, if only their class differences could 
be accommodated. 

G. — The Kingdom of Spain, now held by foreign 
troops, could do nothing worthy of mention in the way 
of vindicating its claim to Mexico, and instead of pur¬ 
suing a just and liberal policy toward the colonists, the 


438 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


Junta and the Kegency drew the reins of commercial 
restriction more tightly than ever before, so that it be¬ 
hooved the people to consider whether some means of 
self-help could not be found. 

7 . — The immediate result of the substitution of 
Joseph for Ferdinand on the throne of Spain was, that 
in Mexico the Spanish Viceroy issued an address to the 
people announcing his determination to stand firmly 
by the old dynasty, and soliciting their concurrence 
and support. The Creoles were pleased immensely by 
this appeal to their patriotism, and the response to the 
address was of such a character that a chamber cf depu¬ 
ties from the several provinces was convened to take 
measures for carrying on the government in the name 
of the King. 

8. — The European Spaniards would probably have 
given their support to the Viceroy, if he had made 
his appeal to them only, but the idea of admitting the 
Creoles, or American born Spaniards, to a share in the 
government, outraged their sense of dignity, and their 
immemorial privileges, as well as the rights of the 
Crown. As soon as the party had determined on re¬ 
sistance, a plan of operations was agreed upon. The 
Aiidiencia^ or High Court of the colony was made the 
basis of action, and the Viceroy, seized under the or¬ 
ders of that tribunal, and his most dangerous adhe¬ 
rents, were held prisoners for a considerable time. 
When the first step had thus been taken, the Span- 
iards armed themselves to resist the Creoles if neces¬ 
sary, and every man was enrolled in the patriotic 
bands that stood ready for action. The Creoles soou 
roused themselves to action, and the angry feelings 
long before active against the privileged class soon 
found occasion for an outbreak, now that the question 
was not such as to affect their loyalty to the impris¬ 
oned king. 

1 ). — Hidalgo, the priest in the town of Dolores, 
commenced the revolt against the Audiencia party in 
the name of religion, and in the hope that reforma- 


REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


439 


tion of grievances would be secured, on the 16th of 
September, 1810. There were private as well as pub¬ 
lic grievances to be redressed, and the policy of the 
, dominant clique had long been very oppressive. The 
Creoles were quite in sjmipathy with this movement, 
and ten of them were acting with their priest in the 
I first outbreak, which resulted in seven of the Euro- 

' pean party being imprisoned and their properties di¬ 

vided among the followers of Hidalgo. The Viceroy 
had now been a prisoner for just two years under the 
illegal orders of the Audiencia. 

10, — Insurrection became now the order of the 
day, and Hidalgo was so strongly reinforced within 
three days from his first exploit, that he took San 
Felipe and San Miguel, two large towns, confiscating 
the property of the Audiencia party in each and every 
instance. This line of policy increased his followers 
very speedily, as the pay of the rebel force was lib¬ 
eral and rapid, and in a very little time he was able 
to undertake much larger expeditions. His greatest 
capture had been San Felipe, with a population of 
16,000, but within thirteen days from the first rising, 
his force had become 20,000, the major part poorly 
armed Indians, but he attacked and carried Guanaxu- 
ato, overpowering the garrison, putting all the Span¬ 
iards to death, giving up their property as before 
among his followers, and seizing $5,000,000 of public 
funds. This city contained 80,000 inhabitants, and 
the fame of his rising still further recruited his num¬ 
bers. 

11 . — Valladolid submitted without resistance on 
the 17th of October, and Hidalgo commanding a force 
of 50,000 men was now recruited by well armed bod¬ 
ies of militia as well as by accessions of Indians. 
Father Morelos, a priest with an absolute talent for 
revolution, joined him at this point, and Toluca was 
the next position to be taken, at a distance of only 
twenty-five miles from Mexico. Hidalgo was opposed 
by the new Viceroy, Venegas, with 7,000 men, but 




440 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


tbe first en.s:agement between a detachment from that 
body and the insurgents, resulted in a defeat for the 
constituted authorities, on the 80th of October, at Las 
Cruces; and if the Creole party had pushed forward 
immediately, there can be but little doubt that Mexico 
would have fallen into their hands- Hidalgo sudden¬ 
ly retreated when the game was already within reach, 
and from that moment his opportunity seemed to have 

E assed away. Troops well disciplined can be held 
ack with comparative safety, but an insurrection 
must never pause in its career until success has 
crowned the effort. 

12. — Cen. Calleja, commanding the forces of the 
Audiencia, met and routed Hidalgo on the 7th of No¬ 
vember, on the plains of Acupulco, and it is said that 
10,000 Indians fell in that engagement. Most of the 
force under Calleja consisted of Creoles. At Gruan- 
axuato the victor avenged the deaths of the Euro¬ 
peans, by terrible excesses against the inhabitants re- 
ingiining in the city, whose throats were cut to save 
the expense of shooting them. 

13. — Both sides committed horrible crimes against 
humanity in the name of patriotism. Hidalgo be¬ 
headed eighty Europeans at Yalladolid, and then pro¬ 
ceeding to Guadalaxara, he arrested and imprisoned 
every European. Their days in captivity were brief, 
as Hidalgo, believing, or professing to believe that 
they had conspired against the insurgents, removed 
them from their jail and caused nearly eight hundred 
persons to be murdered in the mountain recesses with¬ 
out any form of trial, and with every precaution to 
surround the crime with the veil of secresy. The 
atrocity thus committed sealed the fate of the insur¬ 
rection, as the better class of Creoles sickened at the 
idea of such abhorrent practices, at once impolitic and 
frightful. 

14. — The two armies metagain at the Bridge of 
Calderon on the 17ih of January, 1811, near Guada¬ 
laxara, and the defeat of the insurgents was decided. 


REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


441 


Hidalgo, with a force reduced to about 4,000 men, re¬ 
treated to SaltilJo, and, from that position, the leader 
with several officers proceeded toward the American 
frontier, intending to purchase arms and munitions of 
war from the United States, if possible, as the treas¬ 
ure captured at Guanaxuato remained yet unexpended. 
AVhile on the journey, the leader and his associates 
were taken prisoners in consequence of information 
given by a former comrade. The Priest, having been 
tried at Chihuahua, was sentenced to be shot, but was 
first shorn of the privileges of his order, and those of 
his followers who were captured at the same time were 
also shot. 

15. — Morelos, who joined the insurgent forces 

upon the arrival of Hidalgo at Valladolid, had, since 
then, gone to the southwestern coast to induce the 
Creoles to rise, being accompanied by only a few 
armed men, and soon after the death of the former 
leader, his movements fastened upon him the attention 
of all Mexico. His conduct never tarnished the cause 
wdth which he had become identified, and his successes 
•were sufficient evidence of his fitness as a leader. 
Many slaves joined him immediately upon his arrival 
at his destination, but he was unable to arm them. 
When his company approached Acapulco, on the Pa¬ 
cific coast, there were hardly one hundred armed men 
in the body of one thousand insurgents, a capture of 
twenty muskets having been esteemed a special mercy. 
The Commandant of the district was at the head of a 
large body of well appointed troops, and the defeat of 
Morelos was a foregone conclusion ; but the Priest or¬ 
ganized a night attack, routed the opposing force, cap¬ 
tured 800 muskets, five cannon, a quantity of ammu¬ 
nition, and the military chest containing a large sum 
of money, besides 700 prisoners, who were treated 
with marked consideration. Thus was commenced a 
career which, for two j^'ears, never failed of substantial 
success. ' 

16, — Rayon, a young lawyer, who had served un- 




442 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


der Hidalgo as Lis secretary, assumed the control of 
the troops left by his former leader at Saltillo, and 
conducted a retreat to Zacatecas, but his authority was 
not recognized generally, and, in the face of considera¬ 
ble organizations, the Viceroy, acting with the European 
party, was master of all the principal cities. Kayon, 
shrewdly perceiving that, for want of concerted action, 
there would be no chance of success for the Native 
party, called a junta which, it was hoped, would effec¬ 
tually represent all classes that were opposed to the 
continuance of the tyranny of the Audiencia. 

17. — AVhile Eayon was laying out his plans for 
more regular procedure, Morelos won a succession of 
brilliant victories, defeatint^, in every instance, the 
troops sent against him by Venegas during 1811, and, 
in February, 1812, his advanced posts were within 
seven leagues of Mexico. Calleja, who won two vic¬ 
tories with much smaller bodies of men against Hidal¬ 
go, was summoned by Venegas to undertake the de¬ 
fense of the capital, but his impetuous onset upon 
Morelos at Cuantla was terribly repulsed, 500 of his 
men being slain. 

18. — The project to which Eayon gave his atten¬ 
tion resulted in the election of five members, compos¬ 
ing a central government, which was established at 
Zitacuaro, in the Province of Valladolid. Great hopes 
were entertained by the Creoles that the action of this 
body would bring peace to the country ; but in spite 
of the sound wisdom exhibited by the popular Junta, 
little good resulted. The authority of the King of 
Spain was expressly recognized in every edict, and an 
address to the Creoles, in the form of a manifesto to 
the Viceroy, produced an excellent effect upon the 
public, although Venegas caused his copy to be 
burned in the plaza at Mexico by the common exe¬ 
cutioner. 

10. — The success of Morelos assisted materially in 
deepening the impression made by the Junta, more 
especially when a second expedition under Calleja 


KEPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


443 


I failed to destroy him. Morelos having repulsed the 
! assault last mentioned, at Cuautla, was afterwards shut 
up and besieged in that town by Calleja with a largely 
I increased force, but famine did not impair the deter- 

i mination of the defenders, and it was not until all 

! hope of procuring supplies had been abandoned that 
the place was silently evacuated on the night of the 
second of May. Other leaders, who began their course 
I under Morelos, invited attention by their conduct dur- 
; ing the defense of Cuautla; Bravo and Victoria were 
' among the more prominent at this point, and Guerrero 
also came into notice for his gallant and successful 
defense of another town. The leaders thus mentioned 
became more famous as the war proceeded. 

' 20.—Morelos, in the open field, encountered sev- 

t eral divisions of the enemy after his retreat from 
Cuautla, and in every instance won a victory. At 
the Grove of Palms, an engagement that lasted three 
days resulted in the Spaniards retiring to the village, 
whereupon the place was carried by storm, the assault 
being led by Gen. Bravo. The father of the successful 
general was at that time a prisoner in the hands of 
Venegas, under sentence of death for political offenses, 
and his son offered three hundred Spaniards captured 
at Palmar in exchange for the old man’s life. Venegas 
cruelly refused the offer, but the Spaniards were not 
punished because of the merciless conduct of the 
Viceroy, as Bravo gave them their liberty on parole. 

21. — Oaxaca was carried by storm in November, 
1812, in spite of an obstinate defense by the garrison, 
and the same fortune attended the army of Morelos, 
when, in the following year, after a siege of six months 
duration, the city of Acupulco was compelled to sur¬ 
render its strong fortifications into the keeping of the 
popular party. 

22. — Still pursuing the hope of a more general 
identification of the people, with the struggle now 
onward, a national congress was convened in 1818, and 
that body in conjunction with the central government, 




444 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

having assembled at Chilpanzingo, declared Mexico 
independent of Spain in November, 1813. 

23. — The fortunes of Morelos had now reached their 
highest point for some time, and reverses were in store, 
but not such as to reflect discredit upon the priest, 
or general. While the National Congress w^as sitting, 
Gren. Matamoras fought the second battle of Palmar, 
inflicting signal losses upon the Spaniards, although 
their troops were veterans specially sent from Europe 
‘to determine the contest. Morelos attacked Valladolid 
in December, with a force of less than 7,000 men, 
although his troops‘were fatigued by toilsome marches 
and were opposed by Iturbide with a strong garrison. 
The repulse was sanguinary, and on the following day, 
Dec. 24, a sally from the town completed the discomfit¬ 
ure of the army of Morelos. The assault by Iturbide 
would not have proved fatal, in all probability, but 
for a mistake by a body of cavalry which had been 
sent to sustain Morelos, but actually charged upon 
his flanks, supposing that his. men were enemies to the 
popular cause. This incident, at the moment when 
success and failure were in the balance, routed the 
army, with the loss of guns and munitions of war. 

24. — Iturbide continued his attacks upon the de¬ 
feated general, never allowing him time to rally. An 
assault on the 6th of January, 1814, dispersed the 
troops, and Matamoras was made a prisoner. The hero 
of Palmar was shot by order of Calleja, now become 
Viceroy, in spite of the offers of Morelos to exchange 
a great number of Spaniards for him. When Mata¬ 
moras was executed, the insurgents slew all their 
prisoners by way of reprisal. Reverses followed each 
other. Morelos was brave, wary and active, but 
nothing prospered with him after the defeat at Valla¬ 
dolid. His troops were outnumbered, his posts cap¬ 
tured, the congress broken up, his generals killed on 
the battle field, or dying on the scaffold, and at last he 
fell a prisoner into the hands of the royalists. The 
congress was being convoyed by troops, under his 


KEPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


445 


own command, when a sudden attack was made by 
the Spaniards. Morelos ordered Bravo to continue 
the retreat with the congress, while he, with a small 
detachment, kept the assailing party in check. The 
duty was gallantly done, until only one man of the 
fifty, besides himself, remained to dispute the victor}^, 
and then Morelos was captured Morelos fell at first 
among men who treated him with great brutality, but 
Don Manuel Concha, to whom he was afterwards 
given in charge, made every concession to his pris¬ 
oner that was consistent with his safe keeping. His 
trial and execution were very summary proceedings, 
but Morelos died as he had lived, with honor to the 
cause of liberty and to his own good name. 

25. — There were now many scattered forces under 
leaders of considerable heroism and capacity, but 
none of them had attained a national reputation, con¬ 
sequently the cause of the insurgents looked all but 
hopeless after the deaths of Morelos and Matarnoras ; 
still the contest was not abandoned and the jealousies 
of the several leaders did not completely mar the 
chances of ultimate success. The principal chiefs 
were Padre Torres, Guerrero, Teran, Kayon, Victoria 
and Bravo. 

26. —Torres, naturally vindictive and false, was a 
terror in the district of the Baxio, in his half mili¬ 
tary, half priestly, character. The whole district was 
allotted among men who had but one merit in his or 
in any other eyes, their fidelity to their leader. The 
authority wielded by Torres was exerted for purely 
personal ends generally, but his influence was mainly 
given on the popular side, and his devastations afflicted 
the whole community. Under his protection there 
continued for some time to be a junta which published 
decrees, but there was not even a show of authority for 
their edicts beyond the ground covered by the arms of 
the Padre Torres. 

27. — Guerrero maintained himself in the fastnesses 
of the mountains, on the western coast, until 1821, 



446 COUNTKIES OE NORTH AMERICA. 

when he made a combination with Iturbide for the 
movement then commenced. Bravo maintained his 
career heroically against superior numbers in different 
parts of the country until 1817, when his forces being 
dispersed, he was taken prisoner and conveyed to 
Mexico. Rayon was in command in the nothern dis¬ 
tricts of Valladolid province, where he defended his 
stronghold against Iturbide with marked courage, 
repelling a furious assault on the 4th of March, 1815. 
The place was not surrendered until January, 1817, 
when Rayon was absent, and soon afterwards the 
courgeous lawyer was made a prisoner, being confined 
in Mexico until the proceedings of 1821 reversed the 
order of events. Teran confined his operations to the 
Province of Puebla, where the national congress was 
for some time under his protection, but eventually 
that body was disbanded by his orders, and the mili¬ 
tary necessities of the time. He was enabled to main¬ 
tain a kind of guerrilla war with occasional successes, 
until the close of the year 1816, and if arms could 
have been obtained for his followers, much more 
w^ould have been possible; but under the circum¬ 
stances he could only surrender in January, 1817, 
having made terms that secured him against the fate 
which had overtaken greater generals in the earlier 
3 ’ears of the struggle. Teran remained at La Puebla 
until 1821, when his services were once more in re¬ 
quest. 

28. — Victoria alone remains to be mentioned of 
all the scattered leaders. He was stationed in the 
province of Vera Cruz, with a force about 2,000 strong, 
and the Viceroy found him an unwearied source of 
perplexity for more than two years. Thousands of 
troops were sent from Spain to subdue Victoria, and a 
strong chain of forts at length closed him in. His old 
soldiers died \u harness, and it was not easy to recruit 
his ranks, so that he was at length left alone to face 
the power which he had so long combatted. Even in 
this strait he could have made terms with the Viceroy, 


REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 447 

but he preferred to wander away into the mountains 
and bide his time. 

20. — The Indians were strongly disposed to suc¬ 
cor the wandering chief, and at first all his wants 
were abundantly supplied, but Apodaca, the Viceroy, 
made it so perilous to harbor Victoria that he was re¬ 
duced to terrible extremities by want of sustenance 
during a long illness, and the pursuit was abandoned 
at length, because a body, supposed to have been the 
remains of the famous leader, was brought in by the 
troops sent to capture him. The trials and escapes of 
Victoria would form the basis of an admirable poem, 
and it is probable that imagination has already been 
exercised in that sphere, but at the end of three years, 
when the revolution of 1821 was impending, Victoria, 
long supposed dead, emerged from his hiding place 
and was welcomed by his former followers with such 
enthusiasm that the people largely accepted him as 
their leader in the new emergency. The constancy of 
the man that had never submitted to the usurping 
party entitled him to much honor. 

30. — Immediately before the dispersal of Victo¬ 
ria’s force, a Spaniard named Don Xavier Mina landed 
at Soto la Marina with a force of about 350 men, 
many of them being officers of assured courage and 
capacity, and with this body as the nucleus of an army 
that he felt certain he could collect, he hoped to estab¬ 
lish a free government in Mexico, subject constitution¬ 
ally to Spain. Mina had distinguished himself in 
Spain by his regard for constitutional liberty but had 
been driven out of the country in consequence. Part 
of Mina’s small army deserted him at Soto la Marina, 
but he had still about three hundred in all. 

31. — A body of men, so well appointed, landing 
when Morelos was in the beginning of his career, 
would in all likelihood have helped to win victory to 
the popular standard, but there was no longer any en¬ 
thusiasm among the Indians or Creoles, and the fact 
of Mina being a Spaniard and remaining faithful to 



448 COUNTKIES OF NOKTH AMEEICA. 

Spain severed him from the people, who alone could 
recruit his ranks ; still the brave man and his party 
pushed their way into the country and their daring 
won successes against large disparities of force. 

32. — Having garrisoned Soto la Marina, Mina set 
out with two hundred men and at Valle de Maiz 
routed twice his number of cavalry, but at Peotillos 
he was confronted by two thousand men, under Gren. 
Arminan, nearly half of the force being Spanish 
troops that had served against Napoleon in the Penin¬ 
sular campaigns. When arrangements had been com¬ 
pleted for guarding his military stores, Mina had di¬ 
minished his force by thirty men, and the remainder, 
prepared for death, determined to meet it in one ter¬ 
rific onset. Contrary to their expectations, the vastly 
superior force fled in an unaccountable panic and the 
rout was complete. Pinos was surprised soon after- 
w'ards and at Sombrero a large accession of insurgents 
gave him welcome, the first during his march of six 
hundred miles. 

33. — On the 28th of June, 1817, after only four 
days allowed for repose, Mina, now four hundred 
strong, knowing that ceaseless activity was the only 
condition upon which success could .be obtained, 
started in pursuit of Gen. Castanon whose force was 
at least seven hundred, and routed them, with great 
slaughter, on the 29th, over five hundred being killed, 
wounded or taken prisoners in the engagement. 

34. — Mina, still carrying victory with him, took 
possession of the Hacienda of Jaral, where he found 
$200,000 in silver, a seasonable addition to his treas¬ 
ury, but the jealousy of Padre Torres in the district 
of Paxio, prevented any large accession of force, con¬ 
sequently the body of the troops were stationed at 
Sombrero, whence Mina, still intent upon his mission, 
set out to rouse the people. Los Kemedios, a fort 
held by the troops of Torres, was besieged by a supe¬ 
rior force, and Sombrero, invested by 4,000 regular 
troops, was in so much danger, that the garrison con- 


REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


449 


1 eluded to cut their way through the lines of the en¬ 
emy, and less than fifty of the whole corps escaped 
alive. 

35. — Intent upon creating a division in favor of 
I Los Remedios, Mina attacked the town of Guanaxuato 

, with his new recruits, and was prospering in his enter¬ 
prise, until they suddenly refused to advance and were 
routed by the garrison, which had rallied in the inter¬ 
val. The tide of the victory had been lost. Mina 
learned about this time that his garrison at Soto la 
Marina had been captured, and he was himself taken 
I at Venadito a few days later. Apodaca caused him to 
! be shot in sight of the garrison of Los Remedios, 
which he would have relieved. Thus the embers of the 
attempted revolution were being extinguished. Tor¬ 
res, unwilling to cooperate with any other leader, was 
killed by one of his own officers. Guerrero as we have 
seen was cut off from communication, Victoria was in 
his hiding place, and there was hardly a symptom of 
danger for the authority of Spain in the colonies. 

36. — It seems probable that Hidalgo might have 
won the struggle at the outset, if he had possessed the 
talent and policy of Morelos, but the superior clergy 

■ were on the side of Spain, and the cruelties perpetrated 
I on the popular side had the twofold effect of disgust- 
i ing friends, while making the Spaniards desperate. 
Morelos deserved a better fate, but with his death 
there fell all hope of success in that movement, the 
country was deluged with fresh troops from Spain, the 
leaders were taken in detail and the revolution was 
drowned in the blood of its defenders, until the time 
of the national resurrection. 

IV. ADOPTING A CONSTITUTION. 

1820 - 1824 . 

1, — Spain had conceded a Constitution to Mexico 
in 1820, and the minds of men were once more agitated 
with visions of freedom in Madrid, as well as in the 
New World. The Spanish party had now become 
29 




450 


COUNTKIES OF NOKTH AMEKICA. 


divided, the more conservative element hating innova¬ 
tions, even when legally obtained, the more radical 
loving change almost on its own account. The church 
had suffered in some material respects, and that neces¬ 
sitated an influential party of reactionaries, and Apo- 
daca saw that there was an opportunity to return to 
the old ways, although he had sworn allegiance to the 
new. 

2. — Gen, Iturbide, the officer whose successes were 
the downfall of Morelos, was secretly encouraged by 
the Viceroy, to raise the standard of revolt, and an 
army placed at his disposal to vindicate absolute au¬ 
thority on the part of Ferdinand ; but the General, bet¬ 
tering his instructions, used the; force to establish inde¬ 
pendence of Mexico, having faith that he could there¬ 
by establish a good understanding between his Creole 
regiments and the insurgent party routed finally in 
1819. 

3. —The plan of Iguala, as Iturbide’s scheme was 
called, secured the concurrence of the soldiers, who 
took an oath to sustain it on the 24th of February, 
1821. The throne was to be offered to Ferdinand, 
king of Spain, if he would reign in person, but failing 
such consent, then his younger brothers were to have 
succession ; and in any case, there were to be constitu¬ 
tional limitations, the nation must be independent, and 
the state religion Catholic. A Congress was to be 
convened to frame a constitution, to which all must be 
sworn, and under that document Spaniards, Creoles, 
Indians and Africans wmre to share alike the privileges 
of citizenship, without distinction, save such as merit 
warranted. 

4. — Apudaca was deposed from his position as 
Viceroy, and Don Francisco ISTovello was nominated 
his successor, but Iturbide was the virtual ruler. The 
insurgent generals, Victoria and Guerrero, joined in 
the movement, and the Creoles, encouraged by the 
clergy, flocked to the standard of revolution. All the 
country, with the exception of the capital city, adhered 


liEPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


451 


to Iturbide, and Xovello was closely environed there, 
depending upon his European troops, whose fealty was 
doubtful. 

5. — While things were in this condition, a new 
Viceroy arrived at Vera Cruz, and Iturbide, leaving 
his main body at Queretaro, met the new comer at 
Cordova, fifty miles from his landing place, where terms 
were made under which the independence of Mexico 
was formally recognized on the basis named at Iguola. 
The treaty of Cordova made the insurgents masters of 
the eapital, without bloodshed, on the 27th of Septem¬ 
ber, 1821, and a provisional government was formed, 
having for its chief duty to convene the Congress 
already provided for. Iturbide was named head of a 
Council of Regency, consisting of five members, his 
salary being settled at $120,000 per annum, and his 
duties including the command of the forces by sea and 
land. 

G. — The popular favorite was master of the situa¬ 
tion, and his will was law until the preparations were 
advanced for convening the Congress, when Iturbide 
wished to insert a condition that all the deputies should 
be bound by oath to sustain the plan framed at Iguala,. 
as a condition precedent to their assumption of office, 
Guerrero, Bravo and Victoria, leading tne old insur¬ 
gents, demanded that the deputies should be left free 
to give expression to the will of the people. The dif¬ 
ficulty was accommodated, and Iturbide carried his 
point, but disintegration had commenced before the 
Congress assembled. There were three parties in that 
body : Bourbonists, who followed the plan of Iguala ; 
Republicans, whose name reveals their purpose, and 
Iturbidists, who preferred that leader as King instead 
of a Bourbon. The notional government simplified 
the quarrel by annulling the treaty of Cordova, and 
the only questions remaining were, Shall there be a re¬ 
public, or shall Iturbide be King? 

7,—The Republicans were in a majority, and, as a 
measure of precaution, the army was to be reduced to 





452 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


a peace standard; but before such an arrangement 
could be carried out Iturbide was proclaimed King on 
the 18th of May, 1822, the lower section of the popu¬ 
lace combining with the soldiery for that purpose. 
The newly proclaimed King submitted the question to 
Congress, which was now surrounded by his friends, 
and in the presence of an overwhelming force, the 
change popularly made was authorized. The prov¬ 
inces sent in their adhesion to the chosen monarch, and 
Iturbide was more than ever master of the destinies of 
Mexico, 

8. — The limitations to be placed upon the King 
were now considered by Congi-ess, and Iturbide de¬ 
manded such powers as would hardly have been con¬ 
ceded to the hereditary successor to a throne over a 
free people. The Constitution must be subject to his 
veto, and the judges owe to him their offices, besides 
which, as the quarrel progressed, a proposal was made 
that the King or Emperor should appoint military tri¬ 
bunals. Congress refused concurrence. The principal 
opponents were imprisoned, and when the recidcitrant 
Assembly protested, Iturbide dismissed his Parliament, 
nominating in its stead a Junta of his own friends and 
adherents. 

9. — The Junta did as his majesty desired, but the 
people gave no adhesion to the new body, having been 
weaned from the Emperor Augustin, as Iturbide was 
styled, by his arbitrary assumption. Gen. Santa Anna 
who had been Governor of Vera Cruz, and had been 
dismissed by the Emperor, published an address in 
December, demanding the reassembly of Congress and 
reproaching Iturbide with broken obligations. There 
had been an insurrection in November in the northern 
provinces, but that was easily suppressed ; this was a 
more formidable movement. Victoria served under 
the banner of Santa Anna, and Bravo as well as Guer¬ 
rero took the held to cooperate with him. Forces 
sent to quell the tumult joined the insurgents, part of 
the army was in open revolt, dissatisfaction was all 


KEPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


453 *- 


hut universal, and on the 19th of March, 1823, the- 
Emperor Augustin formally resigned the crown to a. 
reassembly of such members of Congress as could be 
gathered for the occasion. Upon the statement that' 
he intended to leave the country to prevent an effusiom 
of blood, Congi-ess, while condemning his assumption^ 
of the imperial title, voted him $25,000 per year for 
life, and he with his family embarked for Leghorn in 
the succeeding May, 1823. 

1(L — Gens. Bravo, Victoria and Uegrete were 
named as a provisional government upon the abdica¬ 
tion of Iturbide, and in August a new Congress assem¬ 
bled to prepare a constitution, which was submitted to 
the popular vote after the 31st of January, 1824, being 
sanctioned in the following October. The constitution 
of the United States was generally accepted as a 
model, the provinces became a Federal Republic, and 
legislative power was vested in two chambers. The 
details of representation were according to the model. 
The President was to hold supreme executive author¬ 
ity, and he must be of Mexican birth, 35 years old at 
least, and be elected by the legislatures of the prov¬ 
inces for four years. The Supreme court was to be 
elected by the legislatures, but. subject to removal only 
in certain cases specified by law. 

11. — The several provinces or states must conform 
to the federal act, and enforce the laws of the Union 
as well as transmit annual statements of their financial 
operations, with other particulars, to the general gov¬ 
ernment. New industries were to be protected, and 
the fullest liberty of the press, without license or cen¬ 
sorship. Law suits must not be commenced until ar¬ 
bitration had failed. Education was to be dissemi¬ 
nated, roads were to be opened, copyrights and patents 
were to be made cheaply available, foreign trade was 
to be invited by free ports, immigrants were encour¬ 
aged by the extension of naturalization, and many 
abuses which had endured under the old systems were 
summarily ended. Trial by jury was not adopted, 





454 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


and the courts were somewhat too secret in their pro¬ 
ceedings; but the poorest feature in the programme 
revealed the finger of the priesthood, in the prohibition 
of any form of religion except “ the Roman Catholic 
Apostolic,” which was legislatively established in per¬ 
petuity. 

12. — The Ex-Emperor Iturbide, after remaining 
some time in Italy, returned to Mexico, in spite of a 
sentence of outlawry pronounced against him. Having 
landed at Soto la Marina in disguise in July, 1824, he 
was shot at Padillo on ihe 19th of that month by Gen. 
Garza, by order of the provincial Congress of Tamau- 
lipas. Ills family settled in Philadelphia, and Maxi¬ 
milian subsequently recognized their princely rank. 

V. THE REPUBLIC. 

1824 - 1840 . 

1 . — Gen. Guadalupe Victoria was installed as the 
first President of the Republic of Mexico, in the be¬ 
ginning of January, 1825, and Gen. Bravo Vice Presi¬ 
dent, by the first Congress chosen under the constitu¬ 
tion and sitting in the capital. Two 3 mars of the four 
for wdiich the President had been chosen passed in 
harmony and prosperity, such as the country had 
hardly ever known since the days of Montezuma: but 
towards the end of 1826 trouble appeared. There 
had been insurrections to a small extent, but only such 
as were easily suppressed, under President Victoria. 
Two sections of the Masonic Eraternit}", one under tho 
New York constitution, and the other under the Scotch, 
divided the country into hostile factions, one seeking 
a purely democratic government, and the other a 
strong monarchy, under one of the Bourbon family. 
The Escoces were the monarchists, the Yorkinos were 
the democrats. The usual exaggerations of party war¬ 
fare kept the country* alive with mutual accusations, 
while the people were electing their representatives to 
Congress in the autumn of 1826, and bribery is said 
to have been resorted to largely. 


REPTTBLIC OF MEXICO. 


455 


2. — President Yictoria may be assumed to have 
steered clear of the machinations of both parties, as 
we find him accused on each side with having favored 
the other. Many elections were annulled in conse¬ 
quence of the illegal practices by which improper ends 
had been sought, and it was claimed that the Yorki- 
nos meditated and conspired for the expulsion of all 
Spaniards from Mexico, but the first open breach of 
the law oarne from the Monarchists, when, on the 23d 
of December, 1827, a plan for the forcible reform of 
the government was proclaimed at Otumba by Don 
Manuel Montano. The programme revealed included 
the abolition of secret societies, dismissal of ministers 
from their several departments, more rigorous enforce¬ 
ment of the constitution and laws, and dismissal of the 
United States Minister, Mr. Poinsett, who was credited 
with being the main director of the Yorkinos. 

3. —Gen. Bravo assumed the command of the in¬ 
surgents, accusing the President of favoring the York¬ 
inos, and that party claimed that the movement of 
denunciation was part of the monarchist scheme of 
the Escoces to impose the Bourbon yoke upon the 
people. Guerrero was the recognized chief of the 
Yorkinos, and the conduct of Bravo compelled the 
President to ally himself with that party in defense 
of order. Guerrero was placed in command of the 
national forces. Bravo, who was resolved to spare the 
effusion of blood, submitted, and was banished by a 
Congressional decree, on the 15th of April, 1828. 
Guerrero was now looked upon as certain to be elected 
to succeed the first President, but Gen. Pedraza, an¬ 
other candidate set up by the Scotch party, was 
chosen, in September, 1828, by a small majority. 
The result of this selection was, that the Yorkinos 
determined upon an appeal to arms. Had the elec¬ 
tion been otherwise determined, probably the Escoces 
would have taken a similar course. Pretexts could 
not be long wanting in either case. 

4. — Gen. Santa Anna led off the new rebellion 



456 


COUNTKTES OF NOETH AMERICA. 


with an address claiming that the people did not sanc¬ 
tion the choice of Pedraza, and, on the 10th of Sep¬ 
tember, he took possession of the Castle of Perote, 
proclaiming Guerrero the newly elected President. 
Victoria assumed the duty of repressing the insurrec¬ 
tion, Santa Anna was besieged in the fortress and very 
narrowly escaped capture, but, after his escape, there 
was so little inclination to support the movement that 
he surrendered, on the 14th of December-, to Gen. 
Calderon. Thus the Yorkinos were apparently sub¬ 
dued. 

5. — The struggle was not ended. The capital had 
become the headquarters of the Yorkinos, and their 
manipulations were unceasing. Many of the chiefs 
engaged in the movement wmre adepts in revolt, and 
on the night of the 30th of November, the govern¬ 
ment guard at the artillery barracks being surprised 
and overpowered, the congress was notified that unless 
a decree was passed to banish all the Spanish resi¬ 
dents, within one day, a general massacre of all such 
persons would be undertaken. The force by means 
of which this revolution was effected was a battalion 
of militia under the Marquis of Cadena and a regi¬ 
ment under Col. Garcia. There wms no force availa¬ 
ble by which the President could subdue the insur¬ 
gents, and while terms were being debated the Guer¬ 
rero party reinforced the rebellion, which, rendered 
stronger by the adhesion of the rabble incited by 
hopes of plunder, proclaimed Guerrero President. 
That officer was in the city and harangued the popu¬ 
lace, but afterwards with an escort retired to abide the 
issue. 

6. — Some troops having come in from the country, 
there were forces at the disposal of the President, but 
he was not as energetic as the Escoces thought he 
should have been, and on that account his move¬ 
ments were looked upon with suspicion, as being 
meant to favor the Yorkinos. December first was 
spent in attempts at pacification, but on the second 


REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


457 


there was a vigorous attack on the insurgents, many 
i posts being captured from them, but on the following 
day they rallied with additional forces and resumed 
I their former advantages, with much loss of blood on 
I both sides. The Guerrero party became victors on 
1 the fourth of December, the regular troops dispersed, 

1 and Congress declared its own dissolution, after pro- 
I testing against the reign of violence and insurrection, 
i 7. — Anarchy now ruled in the capital, the mob 
j seized upon all kinds of valuable property, under the 
pretense of rage against the Spaniards, and stores 
were sacked of goods to the amount of millions of 
dollars. Guerrero, who had been a slave, was cred¬ 
ited by his opponents with being quite in sympathy 
with the plunderers, but he was at length installed by 
Victoria as War Minister, in the place of Peraza, 
who retired from the capital. Civil war was seriously 
j apprehended, but order was restored by Gen. Guer- 
I rero, and Gen. Pedraza, the President elect, sacrificed 
his claims to the interest of peace, by resigning his 
office and procuring permission to quit the republic. 
When the Congress assembled on the Lst of January, 
1829, Guerrero having next to Pedraza the majority 
' of votes, was declared President, under a compromise 
arranged by Mr. Poinsett, the United States Minister; 
Gen. Bustamante was named Vice President, and the 
Yorkino party filled every office. Santa Anna, who 
in December surrendered at discretion to Gen. Calde¬ 
ron, was now made Minister of War as a reward for 
his eminent services, taking command of the troops 
and officers to whom he had just surrendered. 

8. — The first change of President was thus effected 
by force of arms, and the constitutional liberties of 
Mexico were set at nought. Guerrero continued to 
rely upon force as the means of retaining the power 
which had been won by its aid, and the lesson of suc¬ 
cess had been learned by others besides the President. 
Spain invaded Mexico, and the presence of the army 
of 4,000 men was made the pretext for conferring 




458 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

•upon the President the powers of a dictator, and when 
the danger had passed away by the surrender of the, 
force to Santa Anna wdthin two months, Guerrero 
clung to the dangerous distinction. The Vice Presi¬ 
dent Bustamante, who was in command of troops to 
repel the invaders, marched upon Mexico to compel 
Guerrero to abandon the dictatorship, and after a show 
of resistance from Santa Anna, that General joined 
the Vice President in compelling Guerrero to resign 
the Presidency, which was at once assumed by Busta¬ 
mante. In the year 1831, Guerrero was captured and 
shot at Cailapa, for an attempt at revolution. The 
administration under the new President was supported 
by the military, the wealthier Creoles and the priest¬ 
hood, who desired to see a strong central government, 
such as they could control, but the federal govern¬ 
ment carried the majority of votes. The strife caused 
by the designs of Bustamante was the occasion of 
Guerrero’s ill-omened reappearance at Valladolid, with 
the result already mentioned. 

9. — Bustamante was next disturbed, in 1832, by 
the proceedings of Santa Anna, who demanded a re¬ 
organization of the ministry, and enforced his argu¬ 
ments by heading the garrison at Vera Cruz. A 
struggle, which lasted nearly twelve months, was 
terminated by an armistice, and Bustamante resigned 
the Presidency to Pedraza, who received the majority 
of votes in 1828. Santa Anna conducted Pedraza in 
great state to Mexico, to complete the term of his 
original election, just three months still remaining; 
and it seemed evident that Pedraza was only used as a 
means to secure the election of Santa Anna himself 
for the succeeding term. The successful General was 
chosen President, and Gomaz Farias, Vice President, 
and the federal system was once more established; but 
within two weeks the plan of jSa7i Augustine de las 
Cuevas was published hy Gen. Duran, favoring the 
church and the army, and making Santa Anna Su¬ 
preme Dictator. The President was really favorable 


REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


459 


to the movement, but he raised an army to put it 
down, nominated Arista, a well known Centralist, his 
second in command, and marched to quell the insur¬ 
rection. Arista then in due course sided with the 
revolt, seized Santa Anna and compelled him to be 
Dictator. The troops in the city were ready to sustain 
the movement, but the Vice Pre.sident used his author¬ 
ity to prevent the consummation of the scheme, and 
Santa Anna, being allowed to escape, raised another 
army, put down the movement, pardoned Arista, ban¬ 
ished Duran, and was welcomed as the savior of his 
country. 

10. —Ketiring to his estate while his reputation as 
a patriot was good, the direction of affairs fell upon 
Darias, who acted with Congress in curbing the pre¬ 
tensions of the priesthood and the soldiery, as well as 
in general schemes of retrenchment. The reaction 
came just as Santa Anna seems to have anticipated, 
and the President then pronounced against the federal 
system, becoming the active leader of the Centralists. 
The Congress was dismissed by military 'prestige, and 
a new Congress convened contrary to law, pending the 
election and assembling of which, the powers of a 
Dictator were used by the President to destro}^ con¬ 
stitutional authority. There was a considerable 
amount of agitation, but the priests and the military 
acting in concert with Santa Anna, triumphed over 
popular sentiment. The unlawful congress decreed 
the annullment of the federal constitution, established 
a strong central government, represented by Santa 
Anna, depo.sed Gomez Farias, and elected Gen. Bar- 
ragan as Vice President in his stead to do the will of 
the faction. 

11. — The militia of the several states being a 
standing menace to absolute power. Congress ordered 
that there should be a general reduction and disarming 
of that force, but that decree was not concurred in 
peaceably by all parties. Zacatecas claimed its state 
right to continue its militia, and refused to disarm or 


460 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

disband, but Santa Anna marched against the state^ 
the militia was overpowered, the city of Zacatecas 
surrendered, and that opposition came to an end. 
The plan of Toluca was then promulgated, abolishing 
state legislatures and seeking to convert the govern¬ 
ment into a pure aristocracy, the will of one man rul¬ 
ing, and his authority to be maintained in the military 
departments, commanded by his subordinates. The 
next step was taken by Gen. Barragan as acting Presi¬ 
dent, who published a congressional decree establish¬ 
ing a Central Republic, a simple act of usurpation. 

12 . — Many of the states were energetic in de¬ 
nouncing the decree of 1836, but they were not ready 
wnth a force sufficient to overawe the dictator, and 
with the exception of Texas, which had not been ad¬ 
mitted as a state, they were all reduced to submission 
speedily. Texas had for some time disputed the will 
of Santa Anna, and many citizens from the United 
States having been attracted to that region, the con¬ 
test tended against the Dictator. Before the close of 
1835, the government troops had been driven out of 
Texas. Santa Anna demanded the unconditional sur¬ 
render of arms by the Texans, and he was answered 
by an offer on the part of the Texans assembled in 
convention at San Felipe, to coalesce with any state to 
resist Santa Anna. This condition of affairs was so 
dangerous to the general scheme of the Dictator, that 
he concluded in favor of leading an army into lAxas 
to subdue the revolt in person. Gen. Mexia had at¬ 
tempted to rouse the Mexican federalists generally by 
an attack upon Tampico, the force having been re¬ 
cruited in New Orleans on the understanding that its 
destination was Texas. Mexia escaped, but the attack 
proved a failure, and twenty-eight of the men were 
shot under sentences passed by a military court. 
Santa Anna, with an army of 8,000 men, arrived at 
San Antonio de Bexar early in 1836, and that town 
was speedily reduced. 

13 . — The immense superiority of numbers on the 


REPUBLIC OF MEXICO, 


461 


side of Santa Anna gave him the victory in many 
desperate actions, and Lis cruelty was revolting in the 
extreme, but the result y^as not what he had hoped for 
in the end. General Sam. Plouston who had ligured 
in the Congress of the United States, and also as Gov¬ 
ernor of Tennessee, suddenly attacked Santa Anna’s 
Camp on the San Jacinto, routing 1,500 men well 
prepared and not surprised, with a force of 780. The 
whole force of the invading army then within reach 
was killed, wounded or taken, and the general was 
among the prisoners. The native contingent of the 
Texan Army would have given Santa Anna a taste of 
his own cruel policy, but Gen. Houston spared his life 
and allowed him to depart after some mouths captivi¬ 
ty, having compelled a recognition of the independ¬ 
ence of Texas. This disaster was a severe blow to 
Santa Anna, as upon his return to Mexico he found 
himself practically superseded, and for some years his 
reputation did not lose the blot thus incurred. 

14. — General Barragan had assumed the duties of 
president on Santa Anna’s departure for Texas, but 
his death left the wa}^ clear for Bustamante, who was 
chosen President. There were some demonstrations 
in favor of federation, and Gomez Farias, still a pris¬ 
oner, was not without friends, who in the absence of 
Santa Anna, hoped that they might help him by an 
insurrection; but the disturbances were partial and 
therefore without result. Mexia gave to Santa Anna 
an opportunity to distinguish himself once more in 
1888. That unfortunate leader was conducting a band 
of patriots towards the capital, when he was overpow¬ 
ered at Puebla by a force under Santa Anna. Mexia 
was shot on the field of battle by the orders of his 
conqueror, and only a few minutes were permitted him 
to communicate his wishes to paper for transmission to 
his family. 

15, — Santa Anna was now once more before the 
public and in the way to retrieve his repute. Early in 
1888, a French fleet demanded reparation for damages 



462 


COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


suffered by French citizens in some of the numerous 
popular commotions. The demand, not being complied 
with, was followed by a blockade, and in the winter of 
1838-9 Vera Cruz was attacked by French troops. 
Santa Anna undertook the management of the defense, 
and lost a leg in the service at this point. 

10. — Gomez Farias having procured his release, and 
still being recognized as one of the Federalist leaders, 
headed an insurrection in the capital in July, 1840, 
and, aided by Gen. Urrea, captured the President. 
Street fighting continued for twelve days, when a gen¬ 
eral amnesty was agreed upon, and some hopes of re¬ 
form pacified the federalists for a time. Yucatan de¬ 
clared for Federation about the same time and with¬ 
drew from the Union. This state had not been in any¬ 
way identified with Mexico until the act of federation 
induced her to throw in her lot with the Kepublic, but 
her rising in 1840 was followed by three years’ desul¬ 
tory fighting, after which she returned into the Con¬ 
federacy. Insurrections were continuous in some por¬ 
tion of the Republic and revolutions not uncommon. 
Paredes declared against the government of Busta¬ 
mante in August, 1841, at Guadalaxara, and there¬ 
upon, a rising took place in the capital, which was fol¬ 
lowed by a similar movement in Vera Cruz, headed by 
Santa Anna. Bustamante succumbed to those as¬ 
saults and a convention of commanders at Tacubaya 
arranged the terms for an amnesty and reconstruction 
of the government by a congress to be convened for 
that purpose. 

17. — Santa Anna as General in Chief was named 
in the plan of Tacubaya, as nominator of the Junta, 
that must choose a temporary President, and he select¬ 
ed men who nominated himself for that office. The 
selection of the Congress could thus be influenced by 
the acting president, but when that body showed an 
inclination to legislate in a manner not satisfactory to 
him, he dissolved Congress and nominated another 
Assembly to prepare a-constitution after his own mind. 


KEPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


463 


which was proclaimed in July, 1848. The Constitu¬ 
tion preserved the name of popular representation, but 
placed the government in the hands of the President, 
and insisted upon a property qualification forelectors, 
who were practically powerless in all national affairs. 
Santa Anna was chosen President, with the powers of 
a Dictator under the Constitution. The plan of Tacu- 
baya had stipulated that Santa Anna, as provisional 
president, should render an account to the Constitu¬ 
tional Congress, but that stipulation was set aside by 
the President. 

18. — The term of five years for which the Presi¬ 
dent had been chosen commenced in January, 1844, 
and one of the first acts of Congress wms to vote 
$4,000,000 for the purpose of making war on Texas. 
Santa Anna wanted power to raise a loan of $10,000,- 
000 for the same war, but Congress declined the larger 
responsibility, and inasmuch as the contribution order¬ 
ed scarcely produced enough money to meet the daily 
expenses of the government, the wuir scheme languish¬ 
ed and died out. Santa Anna was not popular in 
Congress, and he was more unpopular among the peo¬ 
ple, who saw in him the representation of military 
power only. When it became necessary to nominate 
an ad interim President, the ministry only carried their 
nominee by one vote. It was a favorite ruse with 
Santa ‘Anna to procure the nomination of deputies to 
his work, so that he could control the office and yet 
be irresponsible for what was done. 

19 . — Demands for reform were made by the As¬ 
sembly at Jalisco soon after Santa Anna’s temporary 
retirement, and the object sought vras a revolution, as 
it would have made the President responsible for his 
acts as provisional president. Paredes took sides wdth 
the Jalisco Assembly, declaring against Santa Anna, 
and he was soon at the head of 1,400 men, having his 
headquarters at Lagos. Canalizo, the acting President, 
gave the management of the war against Paredes into 
the hands of Santa Anna, who with 8,500 troops set 



464 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

out for the capital. Professions of loyalty were plen¬ 
tiful enough, as long as his army was to be depended 
upon, but the President knew internally that words 
are but poor indexes of the state of the mind, among 
men of his caliber, and he wisely doubted. Congress 
reminded him that he transgressed constitutional limits, 
by commanding the troops in person, unless at their 
request, and they did not supply the request which 
they saw to be wanting. He set out for Queretaro to 
assume the control of a force of 13,000 men, and on 
the same day the War Minister was impeached for 
having signed the order under which Santa Anna was 
acting. 

20 . — Congress was not friendly to Santa Anna, 
and upon his arrival at Queretaro, he found that the 
Assembly there had pronounced in favor of the Jalisco 
demands. The Assembly was ordered to rescind its 
pronunciamento^ and upon its refusal to do so the mem¬ 
bers were arrested. Congress demanded an account of 
such proceedings from the Minister of War and the 
acting President, and the response was a dissolution of 
the recalcitrant body, the doors being locked and 
guarded by troops, and all the powers of government 
were conferred upon Santa Anna, by his own deputy. 
Puebla then offered an asylum and protection to Con¬ 
gress, both garrison and people declaring against the 
government. The dissolution of Congress by force 
took place on the 1st of December, and on the 6th the 
people rose in arms, the military siding with them. 
Canalizo, the acting President and his ministers were 
imprisoned, the revolution w^as consummated, Gren. 
Herrera was chosen Provisional President and a new 
ministry w^as named. 

21 . —The regular army was still under the com¬ 
mand of Santa Anna, and he was not likely to allow 
one chance to escape him, whether he had heard or 
had not heard of the great rejoicings over his downfall. 
He marched against Puebla, but the insurgents sur¬ 
rounded him, and his own troops were infected. His 


EEPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


465 


assaults were ineffectual, and eventually the beseiger 
was imprisoned by the people whom he was beseiging; 
nor was he permitted his liberty until several months 
later, when Congress had pronounced upon him a de- 
i cree of perpetual banishment. 

22. — The admission of Texas to the Union as one 
j of the United States, in 1845-6, was made the occasion 
I for the Mexican Minister at Washington to demand 
i his passports. Texas had been an independent repub- 
! lie since 1836, under President Houston, and no at¬ 
tempt had been made to reclaim the territory since the 
disastrous defeat of Santa Anna, but the act of the 
Minister was approved by Gen. Herrera, the acting 
President, and it became evident that war was immi¬ 
nent. Mexican troops were ordered to approach the 
debated land, and, in view of such demonstrations, 
Gen. Taylor, in command of United States troops, was 
sent into Texas to be prepared for emergencies. 

23. — Herrera, having used the war policy to secure 
his election in August, 1845, saw very clearly that his 
nation could not cope with the United States, and in 
consequence he was willing to treat with the stronger 
power. Paredes found in that circumstance a justifi¬ 
cation for revolt against Herrera, and although! Con¬ 
gress gave the President dictatorial authority to quell 
the insurrection, the regular troops gave their adhesion 
to Paredes, and the end of Herrera’s rule had arrived. 
The triumph of the war party in Mexico rendered it 
necessary for the United States to take action to secure 
Texas against invasion, and Gen. Taylor advanced 
towards the Kio Grande. Hostilities were commenced 
by the Mexican troops, and the battles of Palo Alto, 
Eesaca de la Palma, and some petty engagements 
speedily convinced those most interested that Gen. 
Herrera was right in desiring peace. Matarnoras sur¬ 
rendered, the Heights of Monterey were stormed, and 
the city capitujated on the 24th of September, 1846. 
Prior to this time. Col. Fremont, with a small body of 
troops, had conquered Upper California, in conjunction 

30 




466 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

witli a squadron of United States vessels under Com¬ 
modore Sloat, and Gren. Kearney had, as part of the 
same general movement, captured the city and valley 
of Santa Fe. 

24. — Paredes did not long exercise the power 
wrested from Herrera. He was deposed by Santa 
Anna, whose sentence of perpetual banishment had 
been annulled by the revolutionary party in the as- 
scendant, and that General, once more directing the 
government of Mexico, found himself confronted with 
a foe that could teach him the art and practice of war 
in a manner beyond his experience. The history of 
this era of Mexican development having been written 
with sufficient detail in describing the administration 
of President Polk in the pages devoted to the United 
States, the reader is referred to that account to avoid 
needless repetition here. 

VI. AFTER THE AVAR. 

To the Death of Juarez. 1846-1872. 

1 . — The necessity to raise funds to prosecute the 
war with the United States was made use of by Gomez 
Farias to attack the patrimony of the Church in the 
latter part of the year 1846, when it was determined 
that a sum of $14,000,000 should be procured, either 
by sale of some parts of the property of the Church, or 
by loans secured upon the same possessions. Benito 
Pablo Juarez, of pure Indian parentage, challenged at¬ 
tention by his earnestness in urging this measure in 
the Federal Congress of 1846, and the decree was made; 
but Santa Anna could not permit the Church to be 
dispoiled, and in consequence the will of Congress was 
set aside. It was useless to argue that the Church 
ought to bear part of the cost of the general defense, 
in which her safety formed part, as only one idea 
weighed with Santa Anna. The Church was necessary 
to him as an ally, and therefore the property must be 
protected. 

2. — It is but justice to Santa Anna to say that 



KEPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


467 


from the hour of his return to power, upon his re¬ 
call from the sentence of perpetual banishment, until 
the end of the war in 1847, his courage and en- 
ergy were beyond praise, and the great preponder¬ 
ance of troops on his side was such as to give 
very reasonable grounds for anticipating victory. 
At Buena Vista, the ^lexican force was 20.000 op¬ 
posed to 5,000 or rather less, of which number 4,500 
were volunteers on their first battle-field. Very 
nearly the same proportions were observable oa 
other of the great fields in this war, consequently no 
blame could attach to the defeated general. lie pro¬ 
cured the best material that the country could afford, 
and as much as seemed to be requisite for the service, 
besides which, it must be admitted that the troops 
fought well. The condition of the country could not 
be considered in the presence of hostile troops arriv- 
ing by land and sea and overrunning the whole terri¬ 
tory. Mexico, occupied by United States soldiers, 
submitted to military rule without finding much more 
to complain of than had been endured at the hands of 
the native scovernrnent. The dismemberment of Mexi- 
CO, to procure peace, was one of the bitter necessities- 
of an unsuccessful war. Herrera would have met the 
Texas difficulty with negotiations. Paredes took the 
opportunity to drive him from office, and, before many 
months had passed, was himself glad to procure an 
amistice, which was ended by Santa Anna’s assump¬ 
tion of command, only to terminate at last in a com¬ 
plete and humiliating defeat with loss of valuable ter¬ 
ritory. 

8. — The career of Santa Anna was not ended 
even when his prowess had failed to repel the Ameri¬ 
can troops. In the enfeebled condition of Mexico, 
it was no longer possible to hold the several prov¬ 
inces together with a firm hand. The strong cen¬ 
tral government, so much desired, was less than ever 
possible, and many of the provinces revolted, Oaxa¬ 
ca, among others, having maintained the disposition 




468 


COUNTKIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


of her own affairs for many 3 ’ears under the rule 
of Juarez as Governor; but Santa Anna, always 
intriguing, procured a further term of office, reduced 
the province to subjection, imprisoned and banished 
his opponents, and continued to rule until, in the year 
1855, Gen. Alvarez, having taken command of an in¬ 
surrectionary force at Acapulco, finally deposed Santa 
Anna, and was himself proclaimed President in Octo¬ 
ber, 1855. 

4. — Gen. Alvarez was quite an old man when he 
accepted office, and the greater responsibilities were 
thus cast upon the younger and more energetic men 
with whom he had surrounded himself. Juarez, since so 
deservedly famous in connection with Mexican history, 
was his Minister of Justice, and was also charged with 
the superintendence of ecclesiastical affairs; and Gen. 
Ignacio Comonfort, with whom Alvarez had for some 
time been associated, was the ruling spirit in the cabinet. 
There was not a good understanding between the differ¬ 
ent members of the government, and, in consequence, 
when the President finally devolved upon Comonfort 
the principal duties of his office by making him pro- ‘ 
visional President, Juarez retired from the cabinet and 
resumed his provincial duties in Oaxaca as Governor. 
The reforms introduced by Juarez in his departments 
were distasteful to Comonfort because they swept over 
too much ground, whereas he desired to concentrate 
his attention upon the church, being determined to , 
curb its privileges. This fact was so well understood [ 
that several revolts were in train against the provis¬ 
ional President, and one came into full operation: but I 
Comonfort crushed the movement, and, in 1856, issued 

a decree confiscating church properties for the benefit 
of the State. The priests and reactionaries generally 
were bitterly opposed to the new regime. 

5. — Comonfort was proclaimed constitutional Pres¬ 
ident in 1857, and at the same time Juarez was elected 
to a position in the cabinet as President of the Federal 
Supreme Court, or Chief Justice; but Comonfort al- 



REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


469 


lowed himself to be compromised in the plot of 
Zaloaga, which afforded an opportunity for his ene¬ 
mies in the church and the army to drive him into 
exile in the beginning of 1858. The original want of 
agreement between Juarez and Comonfort was appar¬ 
ent during the last brief term of office, as the President 
had caused Juarez to be arrested and imprisoned pend¬ 
ing the execution of his share in the conspiracy that 
ended in his own banishment; but immediately before 
his flight from the capital, Comonfort set Juarez at 
liberty, and he used his opportunity to return to 
Oaxaca, where he had won the hearts of nearly all the 
community. 

6. — The military party, backed by the priests, 
were now masters of the situation ; but the people were 
restive under the yoke, and a popular assembly was 
convened at Gruanajuato to concert measures for their 
overthrow. The choice of all classes fell upon Juarez 
to head this effort of the states, and under the consti¬ 
tution as President Judge, he was proclaimed President 
in January, 1858. There were now so few resources 
available on the side of the people, that Juarez and his 
government were compelled to retire to Griiadalajara, 
and part of the garriscm in that place under Lieut. Col. 
Lancia pronounced for reaction, so that the President 
and cabinet were made prisoners in the palace and in 
momentary danger of death. Beyond doubt the reac¬ 
tionaries would have executed the President but for 
the interposition of another officer who rallied a small 
force of regular troops and combined them with the 
National Guards and people for the defense of the 
government. The liberal army was being beaten at 
all points, so well had the measures of the opposite 
side been matured, and when Gens. Parrodi and 
Degollado, beaten at Salamanca, fell back upon Gua¬ 
dalajara, Juarez with his cabinet retired to Colima. 
Parrodi was made General in Chief and Minister of 
War, but Guadalajara was forced to capitulate to the 
reactionaries. Degollado was now made General in 



470 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

Chief and War Minister, and Juarez reached Yera 
Cruz through Manzanillo, Panama and Havana, almost 
the whole interior of the country being held by his 
enemies. 

7. — The condition of Mexico was desperate, but 
President Juarez maintained his courage, and in June, 
1859, in the face of apparently insuperable difficulties 
he published his plans of reform. The liberal part 3 ^ 
taking fresh heart from this pronunciamento, alai’med 
the conservatives and reactionaries into inviting Euro¬ 
pean intervention, promising that with the assistance 
of England, France and Spain, there should be effi¬ 
cient measures of reform based upon conservative 
principles which could not fail to endure. The Gen¬ 
eral in Chief, Degollado, was caught by these specious 
promises, and gave in his adhesion to the scheme, but 
the army repudiated him and his procedure at once. 
Juarez saw the danger of interference from without, 
and resolutely opposed the proposition. His mode of 
action was to allow the people to elect a new Congress 
and President, and so, by the only legitimate means, 
settle their own affairs. The battle of Calpulalpam 
near Mexico, fought and won by the liberals on the 
22d of December, 1860, made Juarez master of the 
capital for the first time since his accession nearly two 
years before. Gen. Miramon narrowly escaped cap¬ 
ture in Mexico the night before the liberals entered. 

8. — The first care of the Provisional President, after 
his arrival in the city of Mexico, was to reestablish his 
government, and to afford the people an opportunity 
to elect a new congress and official staff. The election 
in March established Juarez as President of the Eepub- 
lic, but there were fifty-one members of congress who 
called upon him to resign in favor of Gonzales Ortega 
in May. Juarez was supported in his refusal by 
nearly the whole press of the country, the state legis¬ 
latures, and the governors of provinces. The impov¬ 
erished condition of the country, almost utterly bereft 
of commerce and of profitable industries for more 


REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


471 


than two years, rendered extreme measures necessary, 
and, in Juh^ 1861, Congress, upon the recommendation 
of Juarez, was obliged to suspend payment of all pub¬ 
lic obligations for two years. This desperate alter¬ 
native, only to be defended in the presence of in¬ 
solvency, and as a remdial measure, afforded a pre¬ 
text for the tripartite alliance between England, France 
and Spain, inasmuch as foreign obligations were sus¬ 
pended as well as domestic, and in the December fol¬ 
lowing a force, sent by the three nations, landed at 
Vera Cruz. 

9. — The combination and succession of disasters • 
might have broken down even a courageous man, but 
Juarez w^as full of faith, and the country, although 
weakened by forty years of civil war, did not suc¬ 
cumb. France was very soon left alone in the enter¬ 
prise, as England and Spain withdrew, and for a long 
time the states were able to maintain the contest with 
the power then supposed to be the greatest military 
nation in the world. The first attempt upon Puebla, 
in May, 1862, was repulsed with great loss to the 
French, and the city was not taken until the following 
May. The attempt might even then have been unsuc¬ 
cessful but for the traitorous aid given to foreign arms 
by native sympathizers, who hoped, by means of 
European intervention, to secure a fresh lease of power 
for themselves. The French entered Mexico in June, 
1863, and Juarez retired to San Luis Potosi. 

10. — Many who had stood firmly against the in¬ 
vaders, until the capital was carried, now ceased their 
opposition, and Juarez found it necessary to proceed to 
Saltillo. Ascertaining that the Governor of Nuevo Leon 
and Coahuila had gone over to the French interest, 
the President deposed him, and calling the people to 
his assistance, Juarez compelled the traitor to fly to 
the capital. It was not possible to organize a force 
sufficiently strong to cope with the invaders in the 
field, and in consequence, the President fell back upon 
Chihuahua when Gen. Quiroga advanced. The forces 


472 


COUNTEIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


that were brought into the field under Grens. Ortega 
and Patoni were poorly armed and worse commanded 
Advantages gained by the energy of Negrete, Ministei 
of War and General in Chief, at Saltillo, Monterey and 
Parras, in the spring of 1865, were followed by a re¬ 
pulse at Matamoros and aggressive action on the part 
of the French, before whom Juarez retired to Pass de 
Norte, the very frontier of the Eepublic. 

11 . — Gen. Ortego claimed that the term for which 
Juarez had been elected had now expired, and, there¬ 
fore, the office of President devolved upon him as the 
Chief Justice of Mexico. Constitutionally the demand 
may have been sound, but as a question of policy, 
there was nothing to recommend the proposition, and 
Juarez, in the interest of the people, held on to his 
painful and profitless distinction, until there could 
be an election held to determine who should be his 
successor. Numerous military chiefs in different parts 
of the country kept up a struggle, as well as could be 
done under the circumstances, against the Archduke 
Emperor Maximilian, and his French allies, until the 
civil war in the United States having come to an end, 
the Government demanded from France the recall of 
French troops from Mexico, and the Emperor Louis 
Napoleon had to comply with the emphatic request. 

12 . — Juarez penetrated to Zacatecas in January, 
1867, when the French troops were ordered home, but 
Mirarnon, who caused all the movements of the Presi¬ 
dent to be closely watched, came very near making 
him a prisoner. Escobedo swooped down upon Mira- 
mon in his turn, and in several.engagements defeated 
the enemy, more especially at San Jacinto, where a 
complete rout resulted. It began to be seen that 
Maximilian could not sustain himself upon the throne 
after the withdrawal of French bayonets, but the cap¬ 
ture of the unfortunate Prince at Queretaro, in May, 
1867, was a more sudden ending of his reign than had 
been looked for. Juarez was at San Luis Potosi when 
that capture was made, and he proceeded to the capi- 


REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


473 


1 tal once more as President. The prisoners, Maximil¬ 
ian, Mejia and Miramon, were tried by court martial 
and condemned to be shot. The trial was protracted 
and the best efforts of very able counsel were ex¬ 
hausted to gain time, when no other purpose could be 
served, but the executions took place on the 19th of 
June, 1857. The United States government was in¬ 
vited to use its influence in favor of mercy, and innu¬ 
merable appeals were made to Juarez, but the gov¬ 
ernment inflexibly adhered to the sentence pronounced 
by the court, as the price of the misery inflicted upon 
the Kepublic. 

! 13. — There was a general election held as soon as 

I the condition of the country would permit after the 
: return of the government to the capital, and at the 
meeting of Congress in August, 1867, Juarez was de¬ 
clared reelected to the presidency. The task thus cast 
upon him was arduous in the extreme, and would have 
j been impossible but for the disunion among the sev- 
j eral military chiefs, each of whom hated his rival more 
than he envied the President. Many insurrections 
occurred, but they were all put down in succession, 
and Juarez pursued his task of consolidation inflexi¬ 
bly, without turning aside because of flattery or 
frowns. He was one of the best presidents, perhaps 
it would be more exact, to say that he was the most 
faithful president that ever served that Republic, and 
the conduct of the people showed that they could ap¬ 
preciate his devotion. 

14. — Once more a candidate for the office of Pres¬ 
ident, in 1871, he received a plurality of votes, but it 
was necessary for Congress to elect him, and his ser¬ 
vices were continued until the hour of his death, 
which occurred July 18, 1872. The military chiefs, 
Trevino and Dias, headed a formidable insurrection 
against a continuance of his power immediately after 
his election by Congress, but the movement was sub¬ 
dued in the main before the stroke of apoplexy car¬ 
ried him off very suddenly^ leaving the stage clear for 





474 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


his rivals. Gen. Kocha, on the side of Juarez, won a 
great victory over the insurgents at Zacatecas on the 
2d of March, and was pursuing the task of pacifica¬ 
tion when Juarez died, but the Northern Provinces 
were still agitated by the hopes and fears of the rebels. 
The President was beyond all question a great man, 
and his rule was not sullied by low and selfish aims. 
Ilis name was very familiar among readers in the 
United States shortly before his death, in consequence 
of his association with Mr. Seward at the time of his 
progress through Mexico, and the support given by 
our government to the popular cause in procuring the 
removal of French troops allowed the only chance of 
success to Juarez and his oppressed countrymen. The 
principal traits of the Indian character were developed 
in the ruler who persisted with unflinching determina¬ 
tion through all the vicissitudes of his career to work 
and wait for the fruition of his hopes. Circumstances 
aided him at the last, but he was himself sufficient in 
common affairs to uphold his country and direct its 
course toward prosperity. His hatred of foreign dom¬ 
ination and his devotion to the democratic principle 
marked every step of his life, and won for him a high 
place in the esteem of the lower class of society in 
Mexico. 

VII. THE LAAV OF REFORM. 

Under l*re.sident L^rdo. 1872-1876. 

1 , — Sebastian Lerdo de Tejado, who succeeded to 
the Presidency of the Eepublic on the sudden death 
of his predecessor, on the 18th of July, 1872, is of 
purely Spanish descent, but was born in Vera Cruz in 
the year 1825, consequently he is now just fifty-one 
years of age. Intended for the priesthood, he com- 
meneed a collegiate course at Puebla, but soon after¬ 
wards abandoning that project, he devoted his ener¬ 
gies to the law, in which pursuit he attained eminence, 
having been elected one of the Justices of the Su¬ 
preme Court in 1855. His brother Miguel was one of 


REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


475 


the cabinet of President Conionfort, and as his Minis¬ 
ter of Finance, became distinguished for his vigorous 
policy towards the church. The reactionary tenden¬ 
cies of the priesthood, operating upon the army, 
caused the overthrow of Comonfort, but not before 
the antiprivileged party had been moderately well 
organized. Sebastian lent efficient aid to his brother 
Miguel in his cabinet duties, and was himself called to 
the cabinet as ^Minister of Foreign Affairs, in 1^^59, 
seven months before Cornonfort’s retirement. The 
downfall of the President left Lerdo at liberty to 
attend to his own affairs, and his legal practice in¬ 
creased to a great extent during the term of little 
more than three years of reactionary control. 

2. — The advent of a liberal government in 1861 
was the signal for such men as Lerdo to come from 
their retirement, and Sebastian was elected to Con¬ 
gress in that year and the following, being thrice 
elected to the Presidency of Congress, an office which 
can only be held for one month at a time. This was 
his position in May, 1863, when the French invaders, 
having captured Puebla and approached the capital, 
compelled Juarez to retire to San Luis Potosi. A 
great many of the prominent men now abandoned the 
national cause, but Lerdo followed its fortunes, with a 
constancy even equal to that of Juarez, never permit¬ 
ting himself to doubt of its ultimate success. In the 
absence of men who had been ambitious to serve the 
people in more prosperous times, Sebastian Lerdo, 
marked by especial fitness, was invited by Juarez to 
assume the duties of Minister of Justice, to wffiich 
only a few days later were added those of the Minis¬ 
ter of Foreign xiffairs, with which he had become 
familiar during his identification with the Comonfort 
administration. The responsibilities thus accepted in¬ 
volved considerable labor, and brought Lerdo into the 
forefront of affairs as the representative of the popu¬ 
lar cause most looked to by the nation, next to the 
President himself. His efforts to unsettle the govern- 




476 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


ment of the Emperor Maximilian were continuous, 
and his representations to the government of the Uni¬ 
ted States eventually produced their proper effect, as 
soon as the struggling administration of Abraham 
Lincoln could give efficient attention to the encroach¬ 
ments of France. Until that time arrived, there was 
little that could be done beyond maintaining confi¬ 
dence in the popular cause. 

—When Maximilian, supported by Louis Napo¬ 
leon, was in the heyday of his success, and confident 
that the oaths of his European patron would be ful¬ 
filled, there was no resource for the national govern¬ 
ment but to retire slowly from point to point and wait 
for the turn of the tide, while military leaders main¬ 
tained a desultory war in the heart of the nation, by 
way of continuous protestation against the tjnanny 
npheld by foreign troops. Sebastian Lerdo continued 
in the exercise of his offices in the successive seats of 
government at Monterey, Saltillo, Durango, Chihua¬ 
hua, and at Paso del Norte, although there was little 
glory and less emolument connected with his official 
career at that epoch. The confidence of the Minister 
in the eventual triumph of the popular party was not 
a blind faith, as he had become well versed in the 
causes that were operating to prevent the intervention 
of the Lnited States, in the manner subsequently real¬ 
ized; and he had not failed to forecast the results 
which became patent to the world. When, after three 
years of severe trial, the forces of the enemy were 
about to be withdrawn from Mexican soil, lea vino* 
Maximilian to reap the fruits of his own policv, the 
advances of the Juarez adminisiration to Chihuahua, 
Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi, were the natural out- 
come of the foreign policy which had been steadfastly 
worked for by the President and his vigorous and de¬ 
voted Minister. 

sudden overthrow of Maximilian’s projects 
were more surprising to that monarch than to his per¬ 
sistent allies, as almost to the last moment the Emperor 


REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


477 


believed that he had acquired power among the peo¬ 
ple. Lerdo fully concurred with Juarez in the con¬ 
clusion that the sentence arrived at by the Court Mar¬ 
tial must be executed against the Emperor and his 
two ofiicers, Mejia and Aliramon, as otherwise they 
might have served at any time as rallying points for 
the reactionaries whose policy had cost the country so 
many years of suffering and povertjL There were no 
means spared to induce the Cabinet and the President 
to relent, and among all the influences exerted, the 
representations mercifully offered from Washington 
were most potent; but the ends of justice, under the 
circumstances, demanded death, and the men upon 
whose fiat the matter hinged were not induced to 
waver for one second. The death of Maximilian was 
a reproach to the Emperor of France, but it was not 
in any sense a wrong on the part of the national party 
in Mexico and their government. Lerdo fully sus¬ 
tained the decision of Juarez to continue in office, in 
spite of the representations of Gen. Ortega, until the 
public could determine who should be his successor. 

5. — When the general election was ordered in 
1867, upon the return of the national government to 
the capital, the distinguished merits of Lerdo were 
recognized by his being chosen President of the Su¬ 
preme Court of Justice, an office which carries with it 
the vice presidency of the Republic, and in connection 
wdth the functions thus assumed, he carried on the 
duties of the ministry for foreign affairs in which he 
had become the greatest adept in Mexico. Many of 
the proposals that were made and executed for the re¬ 
habilitation of the national credit and resources were 
popularly credited to the Vice President, between 
whom and his Chief a good understanding, based upon 
mutual respect, continued to subsist. Naturally 
enough, every reform made an enemy, but most of the 
reactionaries were already as bitter as in fact they 
could be, long before the Juarez government enjoyed 
an opportunity to carry their beneficent schemes into 


478 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


operation, and in any case Lerdo was not deterred 
from the execution of his duty by any fear of personal 
consequences. In view of the probability of his be¬ 
coming a candidate for the presidency in 1871, Lerdo 
returned from the Cabinet in January of that year, 
but still continued in the execution of his judicial 
duties, and next to Juarez the Vice President received 
the largest number of votes polled in Jul}^; but Con¬ 
gress, using the prerogative that devolved upon it 
when neither of the candidates polled an absolute 
majority, cast its ballot in favor of President Juarez. 

G. — The sudden death of Juarez on the 18th of 
July, 1872, called Lerdo to the presidential chair by 
virtue of his office as Vice President of the Republic, 
and in the election that took place in October, 1872, 
he was chosen by the people for four terms, so that his 
term will cease in December of the Centennial year, 
1876. His course in office has been marked by great 
ability and high tone, and he may be ranked in the 
Castelar school of Spanish statesmen. The reaction¬ 
ary or church party has disturbed him as much as the 
circumstances of the time would permit, but he has 
met all their machinations with an inflexible determi¬ 
nation, rigidly suppressing every attempt at revolution, 
yet meeting every citizen of whatever grade with con¬ 
summate urbanity, such as can hardly fail to disarm 
the better disposed. The policy of reform initiated by 
Juarez has been steadily adhered to and carried out 
with great sagacity. The abuses incidental to a long 
continuance of military rule and priestly domination 
have been reduced firmly and without rashness, so that 
the people are being gradually educated up to the 
point at which they will be able to realize the best 
fruits of republican institutions. 

7. — Schools and the liberty of the press, which are 
especially the enemies of caste and of class legislation, 
have, within the few years that have elapsed since the 
death of Maximilian, been allowed free scope as edu¬ 
cating influences for the mass of the community ; and 


CENTRAL AMERICA. 


479 


the bigotry which for centuries has made Mexico as a 
Spanish Colony, and as an independent Eepublic, the 
special inheritance of the Catholic Apostolic Church, 
is slowly receding under more enlightened rule. Com¬ 
merce and manufactures, the mainstays of a nation, 
are becoming acclimated on the soil too long de¬ 
voted only to civil strife; but it will necessarily be a 
painful and prolonged process, that can raise a people 
once so degraded and oppressed, to the same level 
with their neighbors, who have never bowed the knee 
to Baal, nor been cursed with the terrible burdens of 
Spanish tyranny and misgovernrnent. The statement 
seems to be in the nature of a platitude, and yet it is 
one of the most deplorable facts of this age, that the 
main cause of the decadence of Mexico, from the civ¬ 
ilization which was being accomplished by the unas¬ 
sisted Indian Kace in the sixteenth centurj'- must be 
found in the presence and influence of European civil¬ 
ization upon this continent, as represented by the 
church, the military and the courtiers of Spain. 

8. —The party of reaction cannot wait for the end 
of the term of office devolving uponLerdo, and the last 
year of his administration has been marked by several 
insurrections, but up to the date of this writing, he 
has been equal to every emergency, and there is good 
reason to believe that he will be as popular in the end 
as in the beginning. 


CENTRAL AMERICA. 

1 . — Central America is that narrow strip of land 
w^hich united North and South America, but which 
may be regarded as a division of North America. It 
lies between the parallels of about 7° and 18° north 
latitude. It is about eight hundred miles long, with 
a breadth varying from twenty to four hundred miles. 
It is bounded on the north by Mexico, on the east by 
the Caribbean Sea, on the south by New Granada, and 




480 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

on the west by the Pacific Ocean. Its area is about 
188,370 square miles. 

2. — The face of the country is very mountainous, 
and is intersected by numerous streams of considerable 
size, but quite short from the narrowness of the coun¬ 
try ; all the larger streams flow into the Atlantic. 
Among these the Usumasinta is the largest, and the 
San Juan, which forms the outlet of Lake Nicaragua, 
is next in size. Among the bays and gulfs the most 
important are the Gulf of Honduras on the east coast, 
the Bay of Panama, the Gulf of Dulce, Caronada Bay, 
Gulf of Nicoga and the Gulf of Fonseca on the Pacific 
coast. Aside from Lake Nicaragua, which has an area 
of 3,400 square miles, there are in Central America 
Lakes Managua, Ilopongo, Amatitlan, and the Yojoa. 

3. — In Central America there are two seasons in 
in the year, the wet season and the dry season. In 
the former the sun is always vertical and is seldom 
seen, the skies being filled with clouds and falling rain ; 
while in the latter, the temperature does not rise so 
high, but hot and dry weather prevails, wd.th a clear 
and healthy atmosphere. 

4 . — The political divisions of Central America are 
as follows: Guatemala, Honduras, British Honduras, 
San Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Eica. 

THE REPUBLIC OF GUATEMALA. 

1524-1876. 

1 . — The earliest settlement of this region is due to 
the Spaniards, who founded a colony at Old Guate¬ 
mala in 1524. This was for a long time the capital, 
but has recently been superseded by a new town about 
thirty miles distant. Frequent calamities from earth¬ 
quakes and eruptions from neighboring volcanoes 
were continuous sources of trouble to the colonists, 
and have on many occasions almost depopulated the 
city. The site is beautiful although dangerous, and 
the special fitness of the spot for the production of the 






























































































































































































































































































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central AMERICA. 


481 


cochineal insect has led to its being rebuilt and again 
occupied after every calamity. The republic is bound¬ 
ed by the Pacific Ocean, by Mexico, by the Caribbean 
Sea, by Honduras and San Salvador, having an area 
of 44,800 square miles, and a population of nearly 
2,000,000 persons, of whom only about 25,000 are 
white, the rest being Indians and Mestizoes, the Indi¬ 
an races largely predominating. The Andes traverse 
the republic throughout .the whole extent, and the 
country is high and varied in surface as a consequence 
of that fact. 

2. — There are many active volcanoes in the main 
range of mountains on the Pacific coast, including 
Sapotitlan and Atitlan, the one 13,050 and the other 
12,500 feet high. The spurs of the main range strik¬ 
ing towards the Caribbean Sea from plateaus and val¬ 
leys of considerable extent and varying fertility. The 
climate varies with the elevation, but as a whole, may 
be pronounced healthful and the soil fertile. The 
government of the republic is vested in the hands of a 
few leading families, and the President, nominated 
among themselves, holds office for four years. Liberty 
of the press is established, and since 1872 the Jesuits 
have been excluded, but the Roman Catholic religion 
is established, and no other form of worship is toler¬ 
ated. Guatemala may be fairly said to have no his¬ 
tory, and few events, with the exception of earthquakes, 
have ever moved the people. The cochineal insect is 
the main dependence of the people, and the Mexicans 
appear to have pursued this branch of industry long 
before the country was known to Europeans. The 
pursuit requires little or no capital, and a wonderful 
endowment of patience, which perhaps accounts for the 
long continued rule of the dominant oligarchy in the 
republic. There are other products such as maize, 
wheat, and rice of fine quality, as also cotton, vanilla, 
sugar and tobacco. 

3. — New Guatemala and the Capital of the repub¬ 
lic is a well built town covering an exteuisive area, as 

31 



482 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


the houses are never more than one story in height, as 
a precaution natural enough, considering the frequent 
recurrence of earthquakes. Many of these low build¬ 
ings of stone are very handsome and even luxurious. 
The elevation from the sea is 4,961 feet, and the city 
spreads its population of 40,000 over a spacious plain 
of unusual fertility. There are many manufactures 
established in the republic, the principal of which are 
the production of muslin of fine quality, silver ware, 
and such like occupations for which the raw materials 
are at hand. Preparing cochineal for export employs : 
large numbers, and a very lively trade is generally ^ 
carried on in the city and Republic of Guatemala. : 

f 

THE REPUBLIC OF HONDURAS. " 

ABORIGINAL HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT. ! 

1540-1S76. 

1 . — The first settlement of Europeans, on the site 
now known as Honduras, was made at Comayagua by * 
Alonzo de Carceres, in the year 1540, and so little has 
the colony flourished that the entire white population h 
of the Republic of Honduras, at the present time, 
hardly exceeds 14,000. The whole of the population 
aggregates about 400,000, of whom 6,000 are negroes, 
200,000 Mestizoes, and 180,000 Indians. Cornayagua 
is the capital of the Republic, and its population is 
estimated at 18,000. It was once much larger, but :> 
war and pestilence have decimated the people. The i, 
settlement was originally called Valladolid. There is 
a college in the city, several convents and a cathedral, ! 
but hardly any attempt to diffuse education. The re- I 
ligion of the state is Catholic, and every other form of ] 
worship is forbidden. The city stands on the river 
Humnoa, about 180 miles east of Guatemala. The 
area of the Republic is about 50,000 square miles, and 
if there were only roads and industry in the country^ 
the raw material for immense wealth would speedily 
be found. 



CENTRAL AMERICA. 


483 


2. — The boundaries of Honduras are the Caribbean 
Sea, Nicaragua, the Bay of Fonseca, San Salvador 
and Guatemala. The Caribbean coast is low and 
marshy to the east, having extensive salt water lagoons, 
but towards the west more rocky, with islands lying 
off the land, as the Bay Islands, which are attached to 
the government of Jamaica. The lagoons of Carthage 
and of Cartrne are in Honduras. There are man37' 
rivers, among which the principal are the Segovia, or 
Cow, which is fully 350 miles long, but full of rapids, 
forming the boundary between Nicaragua and Hondu* 
ras; the Patuca, on which vessels of light draught are 
navigated, into which the Guayape, famous for gold 
washings, empties itself ^ the Uloa strikes the Patuca 
just at its mouth, and this stream has nine feet of 
water on the bar, being navigable for seventy miles, 
until it is joined by the Santiago. There are also 
many ports, at once commodious and safe, as, for in¬ 
stance, at Omoa, Trujillo and Puerto Cortes. The 
Pacific coast is also low along the Bay of Fonseca, be¬ 
ing, in some parts, subject to inundations; but Amalpa 
is a fine harbor in that region, and there are others but 
little inferior. The Choheteca, which flows into the- 
Bay of Fonseca, is navigable for small vessels. With¬ 
in, the country is high but considerably diversified by 
mountain ranges, plateaus and valleys. 

3 . — The Sierra Madre, entering the country from 
the west, forms the mountain system of Honduras, in¬ 
cluding the Espiritu, Santo and Grita, ending in the 
Omoa Mountains ; and to the south and east the Selaque 
Mountains, whose highest peak is 10,000 feet. The 
Puca, Santa Barbara, Chili and Sulaco Mountains are 
parts of the same system. These elevations afford a 
refuge from the hot and unhealthy weather of the low 
coast, but the climate seems capricious. The hottest 
season comes in April, May and June. The rainy 
season, usually introduced with thunder storms, falls 
in November, December and January. The soil is 
fertile and vegetation exuberant in the low lands and 





484 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


valleys. On the plateaus, the fruits and plants of more 
temperate climes succeed well. Sugar cane is indigen¬ 
ous, and excellent tobacco, coffee and cotton can be 
produced, but the inhabitants do not use their advant¬ 
ages. The cochineal insect abounds ; but little care is 
taken to obtain the desirable dye stuff. The timber of 
those forests attracted ships to the Bay of Honduras 
three centuries ago, to fetch mahogany, logwood, gums 
and precious drugs, but there is hardly any commen¬ 
surate enterprise in that direction now. Gold, silver, 
copper, coal, and very beautiful marble are found in 
many parts, and in vast quantities, but few mines or 
quarries are, or will be, worked by the people who now 
inhabit Honduras. 

4 . — The country is rich in every resource except 
the mainstay of a nation, an industrious, intellectual 
and enterprising people. Society is unsettled; there 
is no capital, no energy, and no facility for commerce. 
Cattle raising is almost the only pursuit that is sys¬ 
tematically followed, and even that cannot be said to 
be prosecuted advantageously. Tiie Koman Catholic 
religion governs the country, and there is hardly any 
education. The President is chosen for four years, 
and legislative power is vested in two chambers, but 
republican institutions are ill suited to a people lacking 
in energy and knowledge. Foreign loans were con¬ 
tracted prior to 1872, to construct an inter-oceanic rail¬ 
road, and the national debt exceeds $30,000,000 ; but 
the finances of the country are in very great confusion, 
and the government hardly calculates on meeting its 
obligations. With all the opportunities for realizing 
wealth by which the people are surrounded, the annual 
exports seldom exceed $1,250,000, including bullion, 
timber, cattle, indigo, hides and tobacco, and so few 
and rude are the industries prosecuted in the country, 
that cotton and silk fabrics are imported from England, 
and the United States have established a complete 
monopoly in the supply of cutlery and machinery 
of all kinds. In the hands of enterprising people, Hon- 


CENTRAL AMERICA. 


4S5 


duras will some day prosper, but not speedily. Pres¬ 
ident Medina is now the chief executive of Honduras. 

BRITISH HONDURAS. 

1 . —This country is more generally known as Ba- 
lize, having been so named by the Spaniards because 
the Bay of Honduras was the favorite resort of a 
Buccaneer named Wallace. This is the only British 
colony in Central America, and it is situated on the 
Bay of Honduras in the peninsula of Yucatan. The 
town of Balize is the capital and chief port, being a 
considerable depot of British goods intended for the 
trade in Central America. The area of British Hon¬ 
duras is about 13,500 square miles, and its popula¬ 
tion about 30,000. The colony has no debt, and its 
administration is vested in an official staff, but a 
large business is effected annually in fustic, mahog- 
any, dye stuffs and other products. The town of Ba¬ 
lize stands at the mouth of the river of the same 
name, and its population exceeds six thousand per¬ 
sons, mainly engaged in mercantile pursuits. There is 
a fine iron market house in the town, and there are 
several chapels, as every form of religion is free, in the 
settlement. There is also a court house, and a very 
neat hospital well cared for. The people are compara¬ 
tively shut off from civilization, but a lively interest 
is manifested in all national questions at a distance, 
and the hygienic regulations of the settlement are such 
^s to make the best of somewhat untoward circum¬ 
stances. 

THE REPUBLIC OF COSTA RICA. 
ir>02-1876. 

1 , — Costa Eica, signifying “ Eich Coast,’’ was 
one of the States composing the Confederation of Cen¬ 
tral America, from which she seceded in 1840, and the 
present population is estimated at 170,000. This coast 
was visited, in 1502, by Christopher Columbus when 
on his fourth voyage, after he had been acquitted by 






486 COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

the court of the shameful charges preferred bj Fran¬ 
cisco de Bobadilla in the West Indies. This voyage 
ended in shipwreck, but, after many hardships, the 
discoverer returned to Spain in 1504, and died two 
years later, at the age of seventy, almost broken in 
spirit by the ingratitude of the country and king that 
he had benefited so largely. The authenticity of the 
discoveries by Columbus have been questioned in fa¬ 
vor of certain Icelandic voyagers, but there seems to 
be little likelihood that an enterprising and hardy 
people, seeking homes for an increasing population, 
would have neglected this continent for many centu¬ 
ries after its actual exploration, if the fact had really 
been comprehended. 

2. — The inhabitants of the coast and his own crew 
opposed Columbus so vexatiously that he was com¬ 
pelled to abandon all ideas of colonization, and his 
wreck terminated his opportunity. The next visit oc¬ 
curred in 1523, when Cortez sent Pedro Alvarado to 
conquer Central America, and, within two years, the 
natives had all been subdued to a nominal recogni¬ 
tion of the authority of Spain. There was no further 
dream of independence, although there were many 
partial insurrections, until in 1823, after a lapse of 
three centuries from Alvarado’s visit, the colonies were 
confederated into the Eepublic of Central America. 
Like most confederations of Spanish colonies, the at¬ 
tempt ended unsatisfactorily, and, after 1833, there 
w^as a gradual breaking up of the republic into the 
separate States of Guatemala, Honduras, San Salva¬ 
dor, Nicaragua and Costa Pica. There have been sev¬ 
eral efforts to reconstitute the larger republic, but no 
success has been achieved, and with the present in¬ 
habitants none will be possible. 

— Costa Pica is the most southern State of Cen¬ 
tral America, and is bounded by Nicaragua, the Carib¬ 
bean Sea, Panama, and the Pacific Ocean. The area 
comprises about 21,495 square miles, and is mountain¬ 
ous, the whole territory being traversed by a continua- 


CENTRAL AMERICA. 


487 


; tion of the Cordilleras, containing several active and 
many distinct volcanoes. The highest peak is Mount 
Irasu, or Cartago, 11,480 feet above the sea. Earth¬ 
quakes are common in Costa Kica. Rains prevail from 
April to October, the remainder of the year being 
comparatively dry. The soil of the table lands is 
easily worked and very fertile. 

4 . — The name of the coast, Costa Rica, is due to 
the mines of the precious metals, which have been 
opened here, and which had evidently been worked by 
the Indians before the advent of the Spaniards made 
their existence a source of oppression. The main de- 
' pendence of Costa Rica is upon the cultivation of cof- 
I fee, maize, tobacco and sugar. The dye woods obtain- 
I able in the forests, which are very extensive, supply a 
I shipment which is always in demand. Mahogany, 
cedar and other valuable woods spread over a large 
area of the country, and will hereafter become a source 
of enormous wealth, but every industry is neglected in 
i the present stage of development. The capital of 
I Costa Rica is San Jose, a city of 25,000 inhabitants, 

I besides which Cartago has 10,000, being second in im¬ 
portance. Cartago was once the capital, being prob¬ 
ably the oldest city in Central America, and in 1823, 
there were 37,000 inhabitahts, but in 1841, there was a 
terrific erathquake which destroyed seven churches 
and 2,000 houses. Mount Cartago is near the city, and 
San Jose about twenty miles west. Nqminally, Costa 
Rica is a republic, having been so named in 1823, and 
the president is chosen every three years, but in all 
the essentials of Republican government the coun¬ 
try is entirely wanting. Prest. Guardia rules, the ex¬ 
penditure is about $1,590,000, and the debt about as 
much. There is a standing army of 1,000 men, and 
a commercial navy of 45 vessels, with a burthen of 
about 5,000 tons. The imports and exports are nearly 
equal, ranging near $2,000,000 annually, being partly 
made up of rice, caoutchouc, sarsparilla, rubber, hides, 
gold and cotton. 





488 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


THE REPUBLIC OF NICARAGUA. 

150^i-187G. 

1 . — Nicaragua has the honor to have been discov¬ 
ered by the great Genoese navigator in 1502, but the 
country was not beneficially occupied by Spain, until 
twenty-one years later, when the settlement of Leon 
was commenced bj^’ Francisco Fernandez de Cordova, 
on the western border of Lake Managua, in Imbita. 
At that time the native city of Subtiaba is said to 
have had 100,000 inhabitants, a fact which, even if 
only approximating to the truth, reveals a degree of 
civilization to which Spain is still a stranger. The 
town of Subtiaba is now quite a small suburb, inhab¬ 
ited by descendants of the Indian possessors of the 
days of Fernandez, but completely degenerated by 
contact with a semi-military and priest ridden form of 
civilization. Nicaragua has an area of 58,200 square 
miles, and an estimated population of 400,000. 

2. — Leon, the principal city, has a population of 25,- 
000 persons, composed of Creoles and Mestizoes of 
various grades. The city was removed from the site 
originally selected in the year 1610, to the place now 
occupied on a well watered and fertile plain 200 feet 
above the sea. TlTe cit^Gs now well watered, and is di¬ 
vided into six cantons, known as Sagrario, San Felipe, 
San Juan, Calvario, Zaragoza and Laborio of San 
Sebastian. The city is only divided by a street 
from the Indian town of Subtiaba. Want of water 
fit for use was one of the embarrassments suffered near 
the lake. This is the best and handsomest city in 
Nicaragua, the other principal places being Granada, 
with 12,000 inhabitants and llealejo with 5,000. The 
buildings are low, and therefore defective in style ; 
more especially this is noticeable in the Cathedral, but 
the tendency to earthquakes overcomes art. This 
building was commenced in 1746, and finished in 1774. 
The streets in the center of the city are paved and 
lighted, and there are twelve churches besides the 


CENTKAL AMERICA. 


489 


I Cathedral. The city also contains two Episcopal pal¬ 
aces, a University, the buildings formerly used by 
I the Spanish government, several monasteries, some of 
which have been turned to better account as hospitals 
and schools for the study of surgery and medicine, and 
I other buildings, many of which are distinguished by 
peculiar beauty. 

— Leon is a fair representative of Nicaragua gen¬ 
erally, having few manufactures and no industry, but 
there is a languishing trade carried on through the 
i port of Corinto, which is not far distant. The gen- 
t era I facts embodied in the sketch of Costa Rica as to 
\ changes in the form of government, apply to this State 
also, and recapitulation would therefore be a needless 
repetition, consequently we may use our space to bet¬ 
ter purpose by describing other features of greater in- 
: terest. The surroundings of Leon are beautiful, and 
I mineral springs of great value are found at the foot of 
the Sierra de los Marrabbios. The Indian population 
of Subtiaba is comparatively industrious, but the 
number has not been ascertained. 

4.—Grranada was founded on the shores of Lake 
j^icaragua, toward the northwest, about the same date 
as the settlement was made at Leon, and the place was 
very thriving for a Spanish settlement, until the civil 
wars of 1854-’55 destroyed its glory, and the recu¬ 
perative power of the people is so small that the city 
is still mostly in ruins. The same story substantially, 
might be told of Realejo, and the country generally 
does not progress. President Quadra was chosen for 
four years, and is now in office. The annual expendi¬ 
ture is $700,000; the national debt is $4,250,000; 
there is an army of 800 men on the peace establish¬ 
ment, and a commercial navy of eighty vessels, whose 
united burthen is less than 9,000 tons. The imports 
of the country reach about $1,000,000 annually, and 
the exports about $800 000. The shipments consist 
of cocoa, cochineal, indigo, coffee, sugar, tobacco, rice, 
caoutchouc, rubber, sarsaparilla, dye woods, mahogany, 
cedar, hides, gold, silver and cotton. 




490 


COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


THE REPUBLIC OF SAN SALVADOR. 

1502-J876. 

1 , — The early visit of Columbus and the settle¬ 
ment, by expeditions dispatched for the purpose by 
Cortez, is a twice told tale, and so is the story of the 
confederation known as the Republic of Central 
America, and its disintegration to form the several 
small republics already described. There are few fea¬ 
tures of special interest in connection with the devel¬ 
opment of San Salvador. Its area is the smallest of 
all the States, being only 7,300 square miles, and its 
population is estimated at 800,000 souls, composed of 
Creoles and Mestizoes, added to the descendants of the 
original Indian stock. There are but few Creoles in San 
Salvador who are not, in some degree Indian, and they 
generally combine the vices of each parent race. The 
principal city is San Salvador, the capital, which is 
also the principal seaport of the republic, about two- 
thirds of the exports of the country passing through 
the hands of its merchants. The population of San 
Salvador city is estimated at 30,000, Acajutla is va¬ 
riously estimated at from 4,000 to 5,000, and Union 
has about 3,000 people. 

2. —Acajutla was for a long time under the rule of- 
Spain, the principal seaport on the western coast be¬ 
tween Acapulco and Realejo, but the city is now fallen 
into disrepair, and although one third of the exports 
of the country find their outlet at this point, the 
main features visible are the residence of the Port 
Captain, a ruinous warehouse, once capable of shelter¬ 
ing a vast quantity of goods, and a few sheds and huts 
hardly worthy of being noticed but for the wretched¬ 
ness which they disclose. Peruvian balsam is one of 
the chief items exported from Acajutlo,, and about 
20,000 pounds are annually shipped; otherwise the 
exports are such as have been named in describing the 
resources of Nicaragua. The annual expenditure of 
the Republic is about $770,000, the debt $1,000,000, 


EMPIRE OF BRAZIL. 


491 


the army 1,000 strong, the mercantile navy 64 ships, 
with an aggregate burthen of 4,000 tons. The execu¬ 
tive power of the Eepublic is wielded by President 
Gonzales, who strives to embody in himself all the 
powers which should be intelligently exercised by all 
the citizens of a Eepublic. 


THE 

COUNTEIES or SOUTH AMEEICA. 


SOUTH AMERICA. 

Extent. — South America is a vast tract of land 
of a triangular shape. It extends from north latitude 
12° 30' to Cape Horn, in latitude 55° 59' south. It is 
4,800 miles long, and its greatest breadth is 3,300 
miles. Its area is estimated at 6,958,600 square miles. 
About three-fourths be within the temperate zone. 
Its coast lines have but few indentations, except near 
the southern extremity. The political divisions are 
as follows: Brazil, Argentine Eepublic, Bolivia, Uni¬ 
ted States of Colombia, Ecuador, Chili. Guiana, Uru¬ 
guay, Venezuela, Paraguay, Peru, Patagonia and 
Falkland Islands. 

THE EMPIEE OF BEAZIL. 

ABORIGINAL HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT. 

1, — On the third of May, 1500, Vincente Yanez 
Pinion, one of the companions of Columbus, discov¬ 
ered the country now known as Brazil, which was 
taken possession of subsequently by Pedro Alvarez 
Cabral. Many Portuguese settlements were made at 







492 


COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 


different points, although the Spaniards, English and 
Dutch merchants and mariners were very jealous of 
such operations, and repeatedly attacked the little col¬ 
onies. The Indians were for the most part peaceable, 
and in some degree civilized, but not to such an 
extent as was found in Mexico. There were some few 
disturbances with the natives at first, in consequence 
of the cupidity and tyranny of the settlers, but on 
the whole it may be said that the disturbing causes of 
the early years of Brazilian colonization resulted from 
the dreaded visits of the ships of war of the different 
nations in Europe, which depended upon buccaneering 
as their main pursuit upon the seas. Some of the set¬ 
tlements were actually destroyed by avaricious men 
who could wring gold from the colonists as the price 
of immunity from their assaults. The natives were 
reduced in part to a condition of slavery, which con¬ 
tinued until the year 1755, when a decree was passed 
in Portugal, specially exempting the Indian race from 
slavery, reserving that fate for negroes onl}^ 

2. — The number of uncivilized Indians now in the 
Empire of Brazil is estimated at 200,000, but they 
have been forced back into the interior by the contin¬ 
uous aggression of the white population, and with the 
exception of those tribes that occupy the north and 
the extreme west of the territory, the natives gen¬ 
erally acquiesce in their gradual dispossession. The 
tribes excepted are savage and warlike, and they 
steadily resist the advance of the Portuguese. The 
Indian tribes are very numerous, and their dialects 
differ very considerably, but there seems to be a prob¬ 
ability that their ancestors all spoke only one lan¬ 
guage. Negroes have been largely introduced into 
Brazil, and in consequence there are districts from 
which the native races are now almost entirely ex¬ 
cluded. The southern parts of Brazil have become 
the negro abiding places, and in the north the Indians 
predominate; but there are mixed races which are 
distinguished by particular names. The principal races 


EMPIRE OF BRAZIL. 


493 


of Indians are the Tupi, Puri, Guarycurnes, Tapin- 
ambas, Taperivas, and the Botacudoes. Indians that 
have settled are known as Caboclos, the mixed race 
between whites and Indians are called Marnelucoes, 
and those between Indians and Negroes are known as 
Cafuzoes. 

3. — The white settlers are almost entirely descend¬ 
ants from the Portuguese founders of the colonies, vary¬ 
ing in degrees and kinds of culture according to po¬ 
sition, as for instance, in Pernambuco, the settler is a 
slave holding Grandee, in his way, with many of the 
vices peculiar to that condition, and on the other hand, 
those in the region of the Rio Grande do Sul, are pas¬ 
toral in their pursuits, and comparatively simple in 
their habits. The residents in Minas Geraes have the 
highest intellectual position, and those in the province 
of Bahia are most prosperous in manufactures and in 
other industries requiring energy and aptitude. The 
fertility of the lowlands in this province has offered a 
premium to those engaged in agricultural pursuits, so 
that the cultivation of coffee, sugar, cotton, tobacco, 
rice and manioc, with the several manufactures arising 
therefrom, have afforded sufficient inducements to re¬ 
tain laborers, notwithstanding the attractions to mine 
for gold and seek diamonds in many parts of this rich 
country. The population of Bahia alone is estimated 
at 1,450,000. The city of Bahia has a population of 
120,000, and is very beautifully situated, with a busy 
and enterprising population, but the mercantile affairs 
of the port are largely controlled by the English. This 
city was at one time the capital of Brazil, and it con¬ 
tains fine libraries and many beautiful buildings. 

4. The province of Espirito Santo or the Holy 
Spirit is a very extensive and fertile area, but it is to a 
large extent covered with forests, and the population 
hardly exceeds 65,000, of whom nearly one-fourth are 
slaves. Throughout Brazil the established religion is 
Roman Catholic, but there has been toleration for oth¬ 
er forms of worship since the year 1811, and it is esti- 




494 


COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 


mated that there are now about 25,000 Protesants in 
the country, mostly Germans in the rural districts, and 
English or American in commercial cities. The gov- 
erment of the country is a limited monarchy, the Em¬ 
peror succeeding to the throne as an inheritance, and 
the legislative powers being exercised by the Senate 
and Chamber of Deputies; the members of the Upper 
Chamber are chosen for life, and the members of the 
lower, for four years only. The dangers inseparable 
from a standing army are guarded against by a law 
bearing date 1869, which limits the peace establish¬ 
ment to 20,000 men. The navy is much more consid¬ 
erable, but there is not so much room for fear, as to the 
permanence of freedom from sea forces, as from those 
on land. Education is well provided for in most of the 
large towns, and in Rio Janeiro there is an excellent 
museum. Engineering, naval tactics, military science, 
law and medicine have each their special schools, and 
the press is comparatively free, there being over 800 
newspapers published in the Empire. 

5 . — When Napoleon invaded Portugal in the year 
1808, the King, accompanied by his court, sailed for 
Brazil, and soon after his arrival the ports were thrown 
open to all nations, besides which numerous abuses 
were rectified, which had the effect of greatly improv¬ 
ing the administration of affairs in the country. 
When the reverses of Napoleon culminated in his re¬ 
tirement to Elba, Brazil was raised to the rank of a 
Kingdom, and John VI continued to hold his court in 
Brazil until the year 1820. when in consequence of a 
revolution, it became necessary for him to go back to 
Lisbon. Don Pedro, who had been installed as Re¬ 
gent by his father, was obliged two years after that 
event to proclaim the nation free and independent, his 
own title as Emperor taking its rise at that time, and 
in 1825, the home government recognized the new 
Empire. The first Emperor was obliged to abdicate 
in 1881, in consequence of wide spread dissatisfaction 
with his rule, but his son then under age was accepted 


EMPIRE OF BRAZIL. 


495 


as his successor, and a council of Eegents administered 
the government in his name until 1840, when, the boy, 
having attained his fifteenth year, was declared of age 
by the Assembly, and crowned Emperor in 1841. 

— The young Emperor’s reign was troubled at its 
outset, with a servile insurrection which threatened to 
be of long continuance. His father had made a treaty 
with England in 1826 for the abolition of the slave 
trade, and more was hoped from that movement than 
was immediately found practicable, but eventually in 
1866, Hon Pedro II emancipated all slaves held by the 
government, and in 1871, the legislature made provis¬ 
ion for the gradual extinction of slavery throughout 
the Empire. There was also a war with the Argen¬ 
tine Kepublic soon after he ascended the throne, but 
the conflict was not momentous and it did not con¬ 
tinue long. Paraguay declared war against Brazil in 
1865, and for nearly five years hostilities were vigor¬ 
ously conducted, the victory resting with Brazil. 
While the war continued, a decree was issued by the 
assembly opening all the great rivers of the Empire to 
foreign vessels, a measure which has proved very ben¬ 
eficial to the community by the extension of commer¬ 
cial facilities. In the year 1869, there were ten large 
steamers engaged in the trade on the Amazon and 
Peru, and Ecuador had smaller steamers fully engaged 
in their commercial transactions. There are now 
about six hundred miles of railroads being operated 
in Brazil, and still more are projected; while the elec¬ 
tric telegraph has nearly two thousand miles of wire 
in full work. One railroad is owned by the govern¬ 
ment, extending from Rio Janeiro to Sao Francisco ; 
the remaining lines are owned and operated by com¬ 
panies, and the management is as good as the average 
of such enterprises. The condition of the country is 
on the whole prosperous; the people compare very 
favorably with those of Mexico, as well in their general 
habits as in the comforts by which they are sur¬ 
rounded. The climate offers varieties suitable to al- 





496 


COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 


most every taste and constitution, and the populations 
of the twenty provinces aggregate more than ten mil¬ 
lions inclusive of slaves. 

THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 

ABORIGINAL HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT. 

loia-1870. 

1 . — Spain has the honor of having discovered the 
La Plata in 1516, when Juan Diaz de Solis took pos¬ 
session of the country in the name of the King, but 
Buenos Ayres, now the capital city of the Argentine 
Republic, was not founded until the year 1535, when 
Don Pedro de Mendoza became Governor. The In¬ 
dians, for some reason, were not enamored of the set¬ 
tlers, and the place w^as twice destroyed before 1580, 
when it was rebuilt for the second time.- The natives 
still continue very numerous, and to a large extent 
hostile to the Republic. There are three considerable 
groups now recognized: the Guaranis, whose rule 
formerly extended from the Atlantic to the Andes 
and from the Gulf of Mexico to the Rio de la Plata; 
theQuichus, whose ancestors were subject to the Incas 
of Peru, and who live in the region east of the Cor¬ 
dilleras, as far as Santiago ; and last though not least, 
the Arancanians, whose northern limit is the Rio Sa- 
lado, but who break bounds so often that they are 
said to hold 3,000 Argentine citizens captive, at the 
present time, having taken them in their several in¬ 
cursions. 

2. — Some portions of the aboriginal tribes have be¬ 
come blended with the white race, and their descend¬ 
ants constitute the bulk of the population; but within 
the last twenty years immigration has been extensive ; 
in the year 1870, there were nearly 40,000 Europeans 
added to the population of the republic. The dress 
and manners of civilization are thus beginning to pre¬ 
dominate in the principal cities, as for instance in 
Buenos Ayres; but the Mestizoes and half breeds con- 


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ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 


407 


stitute the lower class, and their manners are rude in 
the extreme. They are gamblers and dissolute char¬ 
acters with a taste for coarse life. Their dress consists 
of a jacket and pantaloons of sheepskin, the latter 
open from the knees down, and over all this a poncho, 
consisting of a kind of coarse blanket with a hole in 
the centre through which the head of the wearer 
passes. The dress oE the other sex is but little more 
relined, and it has been ascertained that one-fifth of 
all the children born in the country are illegitimate. 
Kornan Catholicism is the religion that predominates, 
except among immigrants, and there are some monas¬ 
teries, but more nunneries. Efforts are made to con¬ 
vert the Indians, but the change when effected is not 
always an improvement. Education is at a low ebb; 
very few persons can read and write; but under the 
present administration, efforts are being made to im¬ 
prove and increase the number of schools. There are 
several Universities, and more are in course of erec¬ 
tion. There are thirty-seven newspapers in the Ee- 
public, and forty three printing establishments, sixteen 
of each being in Buenos Ayres, which is beyond com¬ 
parison the greatest city and state in the Confedera¬ 
tion. 

3. — The Viceroy of Peru had control of the colo¬ 
nies on the La Plata until 1778, when they Avere 
erected into a Vice-Koyalty, which included Eio de la 
Plata, Paraguay, Uruguay and Bolivia, with Buenos 
Ayres for the capital. The British held Buenos Ayi^es 
and Monte Video in 1806-7. but did not retain the 
possession, and a certain degree of liberalism com¬ 
menced to operate in the community after that time. 
In 1810, the Viceroy was expelled and a governing 
Junta nominated, but their authority was not recog¬ 
nized by Cordova, Uruguay and Paraguay, and civil 
wars were of long continuance thereafter. The Con¬ 
federation issued its own coin after 1813, and the 
Spanish flag was abandoned, Montevideo, the last fort¬ 
ress of the Spaniards having been taken. The first Dic- 
32 





498 


COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 


tator was nominated in 1816, Gen. Paeyrredon being 
appointed by the representatives of the Confederation 
assembled at Tacurnan. Spain endeavored to compel 
submission to its rule, but sustained severe defeats in 
1817-18 and ’21, the last being decisive. The leaders 
of the revolution were meantime quarreling among 
themselves for the possession of the spoil, and it was 
not until 1825 that a supposed strong central govern¬ 
ment was formed, which was destroyed by the mal¬ 
contents almost immediately. 

4. — Rivadiva, having been compelled to resign, was 
followed by Dorrego, who was forced upon Buenos 
Ayres as Governor by the Gauchos under Manuel de 
Rosas. Such outbreaks and profitless changes were 
almost continuous until Rosas, in 1826, was elected for 
six years. In 1835 he was offered a reelection, but 
declined to serve under any other terms than as Dic¬ 
tator of the Republic with unlimited powers. That 
hard condition having been conceded, he continued in 
office until 1852, and no Congress was assembled dur¬ 
ing seventeen years, but civil war was hardly once in¬ 
terrupted. Uruguay had assumed independence of 
the Confederation, and therefrom fresh hostilities were 
continually arising, and France was induced without 
much difficulty to take part in the quarrel. There was 
a brief peace from 1840 to 1845, when England and 
France intervened and blockaded Buenos Ayres and 
occupied the island of Martin Garcia in order to com¬ 
pel a settlement of difficulties. Some of the provinces 
by which he had been supported having withdrawn, 
Rosas was defeated in February, 1852, and compelled 
to find refuge in England. Vincente Lopez was then 
elected President, but displaced by Gen. Urquiza, who 
was subsequently chosen President in 1853. The in¬ 
dependence of Paraguay was recognized, and Buenos 
Ayres seceded, but after much negotiation, war fol¬ 
lowed, and the seceding state reentered the Confedera¬ 
tion in 1859, on the basis of the Union of Parana. 

5. — Difficulties were not ended, as it was con- 


AEGENTINE REPUBLIC. 


499 


tended with good reason, that taxation was excessive, 
considering tlie small results obtained in the way 
of government. In 1861 Gen. Mitre, commanding 
Buenos Ayres troops, defeated the federal forces^ 
compelled the President to resign, and was himself 
nominated to the office provisionally, being after¬ 
wards elected to the same position, which he occupied 
from 1862 to 1868. Serious outbreaks were suffered 
in 1866 in many provinces because of the war with 
Paraguay, which was unpopular, and there was at 
one time just ground for anxiety lest the fabric of 
government, poor as it was, should give place to 
anarchy. Both houses of Congress concurred in 
changing the seat of government to Rosario, but 
Mitre vetoed the measure, as it would have been 
equivalent to destroying his own position. President 
Sarrniento was elected in 1868, and under his rule 
there has been a larger share of prosperity than dur¬ 
ing any other period in the history of the Argentine 
Republic. There was a rebellion in 1870 in the 
unimportant province of Entre Rios, headed by Gen, 
Jordan, and it was not suppressed until 1871, after 
two pitched battles. The yellow fever destroyed 
nearly 14,000 people in Buenos Ayres in 1872, and 
during the same year there were three attempts at. 
revolution, besides an invasion by the Arancaniam 
Indians, but Sarrniento maintained his hold upon the* 
populace and the dignity of the Republic. 

6. — The prospects for the Argentine Republic will 
be good only when the influx of a better population,, 
in sufficient numbers, removes from the old Spanish 
element the possibility of further disturbance. Wher¬ 
ever Spain planted a colony, the people grew up unfit 
to exercise the powers of self government, and incap¬ 
able of submission to any other rule than a military 
tj^ranny. The opportunities for settlement are excel¬ 
lent, the area held and claimed by the Republic 
amounts to 1,000,000 square miles, and the popula¬ 
tion altogether is less than two million souls. The 


500 


COUNTEIES OF SOUTH AMEKICA. 


pampas will sustain unnumbered millions of cattle, 
which with proper care could not fail to enrich a 
nation. The dryness of the air is one of the chief 
drawbacks of the climate, but if one-tenth of the 
energy that has been spent on civil wars had been 
employed on works of irrigation and water supply, 
many of the evils complained of would have disap¬ 
peared long since. Koads are wanting entirely in 
many directions, and in others have fallen into lament¬ 
able disrepair. But railroads are rapidly spread¬ 
ing over the country, telegraph wires are operating 
over thousands of miles, a submarine cable connects 
Monte Video with Buenos Ayres, and all that is 
wanted to make the country successful in the highest 
degree is an organized colonization, on a large scale, 
suiheient to superinduce good order, and settled gov¬ 
ernment. 


THE EEPUBLIC OF BOLIVIA. 

ABORIGINAL HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT. 

1S38-1876. 

1 .— There appears to have been a settled gov¬ 
ernment among the Indians under the Incas of Cuzco 
for more than five centuries prior to the irruption of 
the Spaniards in 1588, when the territory now in¬ 
cluded in the Republic of Bolivia was taken posses¬ 
sion of under the arms of Charles V of Spain. Sairi 
Tupac, tlie reigning Inca, did not resign his authority 
until 1557, when he submitted to the troops of Philip 
II, but the dominion of Spain was not established until 
1780, when under the name Charcas this region was 
included in the Viceroyalty of La Plata, having the 
seat of pvernment at Buenos Ayres. When Ferdi¬ 
nand, King of Spain, was compelled to abdicate by 
Napoleon in 1808, the intelligence caused revolu¬ 
tionary risings in Bolivia, which continued with vary¬ 
ing fortunes until 1821, when the popular party be¬ 
came sulficiently established to convene a congress, 


REPUBLIC OF BOLIVIA. 


501 


declare the independence of the Republic ana give it 
the name of Bolivia in honor of its benefactor, Gen. 
Bolivar, who had the honor to be chosen Dictator of 
Peru in 1828, President for life of Bolivia in 1825, 
and also President of the Republic of Colombia. 

—Bolivia is especially rich in the precious met¬ 
als, as gold is found not only in quartz reefs in the 
mountains, but in the river beds in very considerable 
quantities, where it has been deposited in the natural 
jirocesses of disintegration during many centuries, and 
probably during thousands of years. The whole 
country appears to be auriferous, and to have in addi¬ 
tion vast coal deposits, copper, tin, mercury, lead, 
iron and salt, in large quantities enough to secure 
present and future wealth for a great nation. The 
vegetal wealth of the soil and climate is practically 
nnlimited either as to quantity or range of productions. 
The aboriginal population consists of Chiriquanos, 
Chiquitos and Majos, and there are very few negroes 
in Bolivia. Half-breeds are very numerous, and edu¬ 
cation can hardly be said to have been organized, 
although the Catholic Church has complete awScendency 
over the people, and the heads of that body, presiding 
over the universities and engaged in the propagation 
of their religion, nominally control the school sj^stern. 
With all iis wealth of soil, climate and mineral re¬ 
sources, the financial condition of Bolivia is extremely 
low in consequence of wars and civil strife since its 
independence of Spain was vindicated. 

8. — Gen. Sucre was chosen President of the Re¬ 
public in 1826, upon the adoption of a constitution, 
but within two years he was compelled to leave the 
country, and a long interval of civil war ensued, 
which resulted in the complete exhaustion of the 
country, so that Gen. Santa Cruz at length succeeded 
in procuring order and peace. Under his rule as 
President there was a time of great prosperity, and 
Peru was invaded by his forces, ])art of that Republic 
being annexed to Bolivia in 1885. A Federal Re- 


502 


COUNTKIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 


public having been established, Santa Cruz was chosen 
Protector, but a combination of Chili and the Argen¬ 
tine Pepublic eventually defeated him and drove him 
from power, being assisted by internal discord, in 
1839. Many revolutions followed each other in rapid 
succession until, in 1810, Gen. Ballivian obtained recog¬ 
nition as President, and administered the government 
with great vigor. An attempt to unite Bolivia to Peru 
was repulsed during Ballivian’s rule, and Peru came 
near being conquered, but peace was concluded and 
old boundaries restored in 1812. Peforms in the ad¬ 
ministration stirred up strife, and Gen. Velasco dis¬ 
placed Ballivian, but was superseded almost imme¬ 
diately, in 1818, by Gen. Balzu, who held the reins f(jr 
six years with much success. In the seventh year of 
his reign, certain arbitraiy measures aroused the indig¬ 
nation of the populace, and Balzu was forced to resign 
in 1855, still he remained the virtual ruler, as he pro¬ 
cured the election of a relative, Cordova, who per¬ 
sisted in the obnoxious line of policy until he was 
driven out in 1857. 

4. — Dr. Linares, who defeated Cordova, tried to 
carry out several reforms, but his opponents were too 
numerous and influential for his success, and in 1861, 
he was deposed by his Minister of War, who became 
President Acha. The unceasing strife of contending 
parties tempted Belzu to invade Bolivia with Peruvian 
forces, but he was defeated and slain by Gen. Melga- 
rejo in December, 1861, who had already defeated and 
superseded Acha. Bolivia then joined a combination 
against Spain, and amicably arranged its boundary 
quarrels with Chili; all the acts of Melgarejo being 
legalized by a Congress convened in 1868. llie con¬ 
stitution of 1868 was overthrown in 1869, by President 
Melgarejo, but in the May following the constitution 
was restored, after a lapse of only three months. 
Melgarejo was defeated in 1869 by Gen. Morales, who 
became President, and was himself shot in 1872, 
whereupon Gen. Don Adolfo Ballivian succeeded to 


UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA. 


503 


office. The government is naturally desirous to ex¬ 
tend the rights of citizenship to Americans who will 
reside in the country, but any movement short of an 
organized colonization, that would give legislative and 
executive power to the colony, would necessarily be a 
misfortune to the parties most interested. One'fact is 
clear, the present possessors of the country are unable 
to improve its advantages, because they have not mas¬ 
tered the problem of self government, and are overrid¬ 
den by a military class sufficiently numerous to devour 
all the available wealth of the community. Constitu¬ 
tions are set up and pulled down again, as children 
handle toys. The income in 1867 was exceeded by 
public expenditures more than thirty per cent., and a 
population of barely 2,000,000 souls is taxed to sus¬ 
tain an army of 2,000 men, officered by 51 generals, 
359 superior officers, and 654 others, or a fraction more 
than one officer to two men throughout the service. 
The existence of so dangerous a class of idlers, full of 
restless ambition, must long continue to be a drain 
and a curse to Bolivia, unless the advent of a superior 
population ends the difficulty by superinducing better 
customs and laws. The debt of the country only 
amounts to about two years’ income, but that is inev¬ 
itable, as few capitalists will advance money when the 
institutions are so unstable. Railroads and navigation, 
with the advantages that could be conferred by a strong 
government, would transform Bolivia into a flourish¬ 
ing and prolific country, blest with an extensive com¬ 
merce. 

THE UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA. 

ABORIGINAL HISTORY AND SETTLE3IENT. 

lSlO-1876. 

1 . — The population of Colombia is now about 
3,000,000, and the area of the country comprises 
357,179 square miles. There are about 126,000 In¬ 
dians in the territory, in addition to the settled popula- 




504 


COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 


tion. The Spaniards planted a colony on the Gulf of 
Darien in 1510, when this part of the great American 
continent was called New Grenada. The customary 
troubles with the Indian population marked the pro¬ 
gress, or rather the stagnation, of the settlement, and 
just as usual with Spanish colonies, the people were 
bled of all their earnings more rapidly than nature could 
supply the demand, so that industries which gave no 
proht to their promoters languished or were abandoned. 
In the year 1811, the colony revolted and secured an 
independent government being united with Ecuador 
and Venezuela in one general federated republic, which 
continued until 1831, and then resulted in the forma¬ 
tion of three republics. Federals and Liberals prose¬ 
cuted civil wars during 1860-(11, until the Liberal 
party obtained the ascendency, and in a Congress then 
convened, changed the name of New Grenada to the 
United States of Colombia. 

2. — There are nine States in the Union: Antio- 
quia, Bolivar, Boyaca, Cauca, Gundinamarca, Magda¬ 
lena, Panama, Santander, and Tolirna. The capital is 
located at Bogota, a city founded, in 1537, on the 
Biver San Francisco, and which has now a population 
of 40,000. The State of Antioquia has an area of 
22,190 square miles, and a population of about 380,000, 
largely dependent upon mining, the precious metals 
and other valuable minerals being abundant. There 
are extensive forests covering a large part of the coun¬ 
try, and a fair measure of prosperity is realized. Boli¬ 
var has an area of 26,600 square miles and a popula¬ 
tion of about 250,000. The Magdalena flows along 
the western boundary of the State, and the Cauca bi¬ 
sects it; the surface being level and covered with 
forests. Cauca is partly mountainous, with fertile val¬ 
leys watered by the river of the same name, and a 
population of nearly half a million occupying parts 
of an area of 68,300 square miles. Gundinamarca is 
divided from Antioquia by the Central Cordilleras, 
and its population is a little more than 400,000, chiefly 


REPUBLIC OF ECUADOR. 


505 


engaged in agriculture, the principal exports being 
cinchona and tobacco. Bogota, the capital of the 
Union, is in this State, and the main drawback to its 
attractiveness is the frequent recurrence of earthquakes. 
The remainder of the Union can be judged from this 
brief description of a few States. The constitution 
that is now in force was adopted in May, 1863; it 
provides for legislative control by two chambers popu¬ 
larly elected, and an executive under the President, 
who is chosen for two years only. The State religion 
is Roman Catholic, and intolerance is the rule. Edu¬ 
cation is at a very low ebb, and the press almost inop¬ 
erative. The country is rich in mineral resources, as, 
although there have been but few and scanty explora¬ 
tions, it is known that gold can be obtained in Antio- 
quia and for great distances in the valley of the Cauca 
River. In the Choco the natives have found platina, 
and Marquetones has silver deposits, besides which, 
and even better for the eventual prosperity of the 
country, there are rich layers of coal under the plains 
of Bogota. The great River Amazon forms part of 
the southern boundary of the Republic, and the Ori¬ 
noco is its eastern border. The Pacific Ocean is the 
western limitation, and to the north the States reach 
to the Caribbean Sea. Venezuela, Brazil and Ecuador 
are the close neighbors of Colombia ; but there is room 
for whole nations to grow up between them when law 
and order can be established. 

REPUBLIC OF ECUADOR. 

ABORIGINAL HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT. 

1475-1S76. 

—Ecuador, so named in modern days because of 
its equatorial position, was originally known as the 
kingdom of Quito. The Republic extends about 800 
miles east and west, and its area is 250,000 square 
miles, although it is estimated at 206,692 by Guyot. 
The Spanish province of Quito is included in Ecuador, 



606 


COUNTKIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 


Indian traditions, seldom reliable when they go be¬ 
yond two generations, say that there was once a 
mighty kingdom on this area, comprising fifty prov¬ 
inces, its people being known as Quitoos or Qui- 
choos. Sometime in the ninth century a strange peo¬ 
ple, coming from the coast, conquered the Quitoos and 
reigned over them for five centuries; the conquerors 
were called Caras. The emigration movement seems 
to have preceded the advance upon Mexico. In 
the year 1475, the Great Inca Iluayna Capac over¬ 
ran the country, and divided his conquests between 
his sons, Huascar and Atahnallpa, the latter becom¬ 
ing King of Quito and the former Inca of Peru. 
The last named events come near enough to the era of 
Spanish possession to be worthy of some dependence. 
The brothers quarreled, and the King of Quito con¬ 
quered Huascar, and when the Spaniards landed in 
the country, Atahnallpe was sovereign of both terri¬ 
tories. He made war against the Europeans and was 
subdued, losing both throne and life in despite of his 
gallant efforts. Quito then became a Presidency in 
New Spain, and for nearly three hundred years this 
country supplied Spain with vast quantities of gold 
and silver; but the despotism of the rulers was so 
oppressive that in man}’- districts the Indians in mere 
desperation destroyed the mines which were made the 
means of their oppression, and in consequence the 
mineral treasures of the country have not been ex¬ 
hausted by the rude workings of the aborigines. 

2. — There were two attempts to establish the inde¬ 
pendence of the colony, in 1809 and in 1812, but they 
were subdued, and it remained for the country to be 
freed in 1820, by the revolution under the leadership 
of Bolivar. The final overthrow of Spanish power 
was not accomplished until 1824, when the battle of 
Ayacucho terminated the hated rule of the European 
within the limits covered by Colombia, Venezuela 
and Ecuador at one blow. The separation of the des¬ 
tinies of Ecuador from those of Colombia, occurred in. 


EEPUBLIC OF ECUADOR. 


507 


1831, when the companion of Boliver, Gren. Juan 
Jose de Flores, was chosen President. The rule of 
Flores, sometimes as President and at others as Gener¬ 
al-in-Chief, continued fourteen years, but in 1815 he 
was com.pelled to sign an agreement that he would 
quit the country. The history of Ecuador has been 
little other than a record of wars, insurrections and 
revolutions ever since independence from Spanish 
rule was attempted. Vincente Posa, who succeeded 
Flores in 1815, subdued an insurrection in October, 
1816, but the clerical party succeeded in electing 
Noboa, their candidate. President in 1850. In the 
following July, 1851, he was deposed and exiled, and 
Gen. Urbino, representing the opposite faction, reigned 
until 1856, in comparative peace, so that his successor, 
President Pobles could introduce reforms in the gov¬ 
ernment and social condition, among others the French 
decimal system of weights, measures and currency, 
between 1856 and 1859. Pobles resigned because he 
would not ratify a convention agreed upon between 
commanders of the forces of Ecuador and Pei-u to 
terminate a war between the two Pepublics, and in 
January, 1861, Dr. Garcia Moreno, representing the 
priest party, was nominated President by a national 
convention, Flores being appointed Governor of Guay¬ 
aquil. This administration conducted two unsuccessful 
wars with New Granada, since become the United 
States of Colombia, and Moreno resigned in 1865. 
His last act of any importance was an alliance offen¬ 
sive and defensive with Chili, which was annulled by 
Congress under his successor, Geronimo Carrion. 

3. —Ecuador joined the combination against Spain 
in January, 1866, associating therein with Chili, Pern 
and Bolivia, but there was no immediate result affect¬ 
ing the Pepublic. Brest. Carrion resigned in Novem¬ 
ber, 1867, and Dr. Espinosa became President. It 
was during his presidency that Ecuador was visited 
with the terrible earthquake of 1868, in which oyer 
three thousand persons perished, but the destructive 



508 


COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 


forces of inanimate nature did not quell the national 
tendency to revolution, as in January, 1869, Moreno 
headed a party that overthrew the administration 
of Dr. Espinosa, and became Dictator until May, when 
a convention named Dr. Carvajal as Provisional Presi¬ 
dent. The general election that followed that nomina¬ 
tion, gave the presidency to Moreno, and his rule has 
been on the whole favorable to the development of the 
resources of the Republic. The Indians rose in rebel¬ 
lion in 1872, and destroyed much valuable property, 
but the outbreak was subdued with great vigor, and 
since that date, some efforts have been made to favor 
education by the establishment of a college, a poly¬ 
technic, schools of art, and minor academies, besides 
which an observatory under European professors has 
been established at Quito. 

4 . — Ecuador is traversed by two Cordilleras of the 
Andes, consequent! 3 ^ it embraces every temperature, 
from the terrible heat of the tierras calienies, to the re¬ 
gion of perpetual snow, and there are sixteen active 
volcanoes, including Cotopaxi 18,875 feet high, in the 
territory of the Republic. Chimborazo is the highest 
peak, being 21,424 feet above the level of the sea. 
The highest points in the eastern Cordillera are Cay- 
ambe and Antisana, 19,535 and 19,137 feet high re¬ 
spectively. The table land of Quito lies between two 
ranges, 9,543 feet above the sea, enjoying a delightful 
temperature. Perpetual spring reigns here, and in the 
elevated valleys of Cuenca and Harnbato, the only 
variation in the so called winter being more copious 
rains. The Amazon has many considerable tributa¬ 
ries in Ecuador ; the Napo, the Tigre, Pastaza, and 
Ica or Putuma^m. The great river is here called the 
Maranon. The Ica and Napo are supposed to be 
navigable for five hundred miles. 

5 . —There are three departments in the Republic: 
Guayas with Guayaquil for its capital; Pichincha, 
whose capital is Quito, and Assuajr having Cuenca for 
its chief city; these departments are subdivided into 


REPUBLIC OF ECUADOR. 


509 


provinces. Quito is tlie cfi.pital of the Eepublic, and 
Guayaquil its principal seaport. The population of 
Guayaquil is about 25,000, and the city stands at the 
mouth of the river of the same name, which is navig¬ 
able for some distance. The city is neither healthful 
nor picturesque, but it is the seat of a considerable 
trade, as its imports average $2,500,000 per annum, 
and its exports $3,750,000. Cocoa, caoutchouc, tobac¬ 
co and timber are the staple exports, for which wines, 
hardware and cotton are taken in exchange. Good 
water is very scarce in Guayaquil. The province of 
Guay as has a population of about 40,000, and the de¬ 
partment of Guayaquil, containing an area of 14,000 
square miles, has about 100,000 inhabitants. This de¬ 
partment extends from the Pacific to the Andes, and 
Guajmquil is the capital of both province and depart¬ 
ment. 

0 . — The population of Ecuador is about 1,104,000 ; 
including Europeans, principally Spaniards or their 
decendants, about 900,000; Indians, 160,000; Negroes, 
8,000, and Mestizoes, 36,000; but the llgures are 
largely conjectural. There is political equality among 
the races, and the profession of Eornan Catholicism is 
general except among the uncivilized Indians. Intol¬ 
erance is of course the rule. There is a university at 
Quito which dates from 1684, and there are four col¬ 
leges, besides eleven high schools and nearly 300 
primary schools, of which only thirty are devoted to 
the education of girls. Education is subordinated to 
the direction of the Catholic Church, and the Indian 
races are entirely unprovided in this respect. The 
minerals found in the Eepublic include syenite, gran¬ 
ite, porphory, trachyte, gold, silver, mercury, anti¬ 
mony, copper, iron, lead, zinc and salt, in all of which 
considerable exports will be carried on when the com¬ 
merce of the country is more fully developed ; but the 
forests abound with wild animals, including the cou¬ 
gar, jaguar, panther, bear and ounce. Many of the 
vegetal products are very valuable, such as the cin- 



510 COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. ’ 

chona, from which Peruvian bark is obtained; vanilla, 
cocoa, tulu, caoutchouc, croton oil, pineaple, the 
orange and cherimoya; and the forest trees are valued 
for ship building purposes. In the lowlands, which 
are very unhealthy, cotton, sugar cane, coffee, rice, 
pepper and the banana flourish ; and on the high table¬ 
lands of Quito, in the region of perpetual spring, 
where the better class of population will of course 
eventually congregate, maize, wheat, barley, and 
almost every cereal comes to perfection. There is but, 
little wanted beyond capital, population and settled 
institutions to make Ecuador a prosperous republic ; 
but the frequent recurrence of earthquakes, due prob¬ 
ably to the equatorial position of the country, will 
necessarily impede settlement for many centuries to 
come. 

THE EEPUBLIC OF CHILL 
ABORIGINAL HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT. 

1500 - 1876 . 

1 . — When Pizarro conquered the Inca of Peru, the 
province of Chili was part of his dominions; but Chili 
was not directly invaded until 1535, when Almagro 
undertook the conquest. Valdivia succeeded Alma¬ 
gro in the command, and all the country except Aran- 
cania was finally subdued bv Spanish arms. Santiago 
was founded in 1511 by Valdivia, but in 1553, the 
Arancanians, a fierce and unconquerable race of In¬ 
dians, defeated and killed that leader. The growth of 
Chili is enveloped in great obscurity for a long term 
of years, and the rule of Spain was tyrannical without 
being complete, the Arancanians being a perpetual 
source of trouble to the European settlements, and a 
rallying point for other disaffected Indians, but the 
form of government and the reality of despotism were 
never abandoned. 

2 , — When revolutionary movements commenced 
in the South American Colonies in 1808-9, Chili fol¬ 
lowed in the same track, and revolted in 1810 against 


REPUBLIC OF CHILI, 


511 


the authority of the mother country. A Junta as¬ 
sembled at Santiago and nominated a native of Chili, 
the Marquis De la Plate, first President of the repub¬ 
lic. Spain did not permit the colonies to depart in 
peace, but after a prolonged and desultory war, Eu¬ 
ropean pretensions were partially extinguished by the 
victory at Chacubuco on the 12th of February, 1817, 
the final blow being struck at May per in May, 1818. 
Independence was proclaimed in January, 1818, but 
it was not until 1826 that the last stronghold of Spain, 
the island of Chiloe, was captured. 

3. — Two constitutions were adopted in succession, 
the first in 1824. and the second four years later. 
War was declared against Peru in 1837, and hostilities 
continued nearl}^ two years. Spain recognized the 
independence of Chili by treaty in 1844, and the Ke- 
public has generally enjoyed greater quietude than 
the other South American states. The administration 
of President Bulnes, from 1841 to 1851, was almost 
entirely free from commotion, and his successor. Presi¬ 
dent Manuel Montt, had only to suppress two insur¬ 
rections during the ten years of his rule. The natural 
result of this exceptional condition was, that all the 
domestic arts flourished, and immigration from Eu¬ 
rope progressed considerably. Agriculture was exten¬ 
sively carried on, navigation advanced steadily, and 
the mines were worked with much perseverance and 
profit to all concerned. Manufactures were also ex¬ 
tensively undertaken. 

4. — President Perez enjoyed two administrative 
terms, from 1861 to 1871, and during part of that time 
Chili was at war with Spain, having joined with 
Ecuador, Bolivia and Peru for that purpose. The 
contest began in 1865, and in March, 1866, Spain 
bombarded Valparaiso, but was compelled to raise 
the blockade within fourteen days, in consequence of 
the emphatic protests of the European powers, which 
indicated a determination to carry the remonstrance 
into material effect, unless hostilities were abandoned. 




612 COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 

Peace was not definitely concluded until 1869, when 
the United States, acting as mediator, procured a set¬ 
tlement of the quarrel. President Errazuriz was 
chosen to commence his first term in 1871, and will 
probably be reelected in September of the present 
year. The Conservative or Church Party has been in 
the ascendant for the last twenty-five years; but the 
liberals persistently contend in a peaceful and consti¬ 
tutional way for religious toleration and the introduc¬ 
tion of universal suffrage, instalments of liberty not 
yet secured. There have been no intestinal commo¬ 
tions since the year 1859, but the Arancanian Indians, 
always intractable, have frequently risen against the 
government and have been suppressed on several oc¬ 
casions only after much bloodshed. In effective gov¬ 
ernment Chili stands at the head of the South Amer¬ 
ican Eepublics. 

5, — The territory of the Kepublic is long and nar¬ 
row, hemmed in between the Andes and the Pacific 
Ocean. The greatest length is 1,200 miles, the breadth 
varying from 90 to 130 miles, and the estimated area 
132,616 square miles. The treaty of 1866 settled ter¬ 
ritorial limits between this republic and Bolivia. The 
Chilian Andes have a mean elevation of nearly 14,000 
feet, the highest peak being the Parphyritic Nevado 
of Aconcagua, 22,422 feet above the sea. There are 
several active volcanoes, and many lateral ridges of 
the mountains separate the country into beautiful and 
very fertile valleys. The southern and central parts 
have the richest soil, the country north of Valparaiso 
inclining to sterility. The coast is bold and precipi¬ 
tous so tiiat vessels of great burthen can lie almost 
close to the shore at many points. Earthquakes are 
very common in this region, one of especial severity in 
1822, destroyed many cities and permanently raised 
the coast about four i’eet. 

6. — Silver mines of great richness have been 
opened in the northern parts of Chili, but the want 
of water and the necessity to convey nearly all the 


REPUBLIC OF CHILL 


513 


provisions required by the miners into that inhospita¬ 
ble country, have prevented the prosecution of large 
works, such as will become easy, in the course of a 
few years’ development, in which irrigation and aque¬ 
ducts must play a very prominent part. Copper mines 
are plentiful and the ores particularly rich. Gold, 
lead, bismuth, iron, cobalt, antimony and quicksilver 
can be obtained in considerable quantities, and exten¬ 
sive beds of bituminous coal have been opened at Tal- 
cahuano. The climate is very healthy; there are 
rains from June to September, occasionally, except in 
the north, where droughts often continue for years, re¬ 
lieved only by heavy dews at night, sometimes. The 
greatest heat conies in January and February, but 
95° in the shade is the maximum. Storms seldom oc¬ 
cur, except in the winter or rainy season. Dense for 
ests occur in the southern provinces, with laurels, 
myrtles, cypresses and other such growths of gigantic 
proportions. Pastoral pursuits and the cultivation of 
cereals flourish in the middle provinces, and the main 
products are wheat, barley, maize, hemp and potatoes. 
Fruits are abundant, such as plums, pears, apples, 
peaches and oranges. Silver, copper, wheat, wool and 
hides are the chief exports from Chili. 

7. — There are no rivers or lakes of great size in 
Chili. The Biobio is nearly two hundred miles 
long, but not navigable; it is a mountain torrent 
rather than a river. There are many small lakes 
locked in among the mountains, from some of which 
valuable water supplies will be procured when circum¬ 
stances warrant the necessary outlay. There are good 
ports and secure harbors at Valdivia, Valparaiso, Con¬ 
cepcion and Coquimbo, and sufficient facilities are 
everywhere enjoyed for the prosecution of an exten¬ 
sive commerce. 

8. — There are fifteen provinces in the Kepublic: 
Chiloe, Concepcion, Aranco, Maule, Nuble, Curico, 
Talca, Valdivia, Llanquihue, Colchagua, Valparaiso, 
Santiago, Aconcagua, Coquimbo and Atacama. The 

33 


514 


COUNTKIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 


capital is at Santiago, and the other principal cities are 
Valparaiso. Concepcion and Talca. La Concepcion 
has handsome houses and broad streets, and an exten¬ 
sive foreign trade. Its port is Talcahuano, one of the 
best in Chili. The city has been thrice destroyed by 
earthquakes — in 1730, 1752 and in 1825; but its 
population is now about 16,000. 

9. — The President is elected for five years, and the 
Legislature consists of two chambers, both elective, 
the upper being chosen every nine years, the lower for 
three years only. The established religion is Poman 
Catholic, and no other is tolerated, but the minds of 
the people are being liberalized by outside influences. 
The population is mainly of Spanish descent, but re¬ 
cent immigrations are disturbing the balance. The 
mixed raees and Indians are numerous, and the popu¬ 
lation is very nearly 3,000,000. The imports and ex¬ 
ports each exceed $35,000,000, and there are about 
500 miles of railroads in operation. The income of 
the government customarily realizes about $11,000,000, 
and the expenditures slightly exceed that amount, be¬ 
ing incurred partly in works of a reproductive char¬ 
acter, covered by loans which amount to nearly 
$40,000,000 at the present time. The national fleet 
consists of twelve steamers; the army of about 5,000 
soldiers of the line, and a national guard of about 
55,000. The colony of Magallanes forms part of the 
Eepublic of Chili. 


GUIANA. 

COLONIAL HISTORY. 

1 . — The vast territory under this head is bounded 
by the Atlantic Ocean and the rivers Amazon and 
Oronoco on the northeastern part of South America. 
Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, Brazil and 
Venezuela hold parts of this region in different con¬ 
ditions of dependency, and development is stunted al¬ 
most as a matter of course. From the Atlantic coast^ 




GUIANA. 


515 


Guiana stretches back over a belt of low land v^arying 
from ten to forty miles in breadth, and the soil is 
mainly due to the mud brought down by the rivers 
Essequibo, Demerara, Berbice, Corenten, Maroni, 
the Ovapok and other streams. The shallows extend 
far beyond the coast line, and vast banks of mud are 
just awash even now at low tides, so that the mode of 
formation is readily illustrated to the observer. 

2 . — The river Corenten is the boundary line be¬ 
tween English Guiana and the Dutch possessions; the 
^[aroni separates Dutch Guiana from the French prov¬ 
ince; and the Oyapok divides French Guiana from 
that pertaining to the Empire of Brazil. The soil is very 
fruitful where it can be cultivated, as it eonsists of de¬ 
composed clay, marine salts and decayed vegetation, 
but the low lands, when drained, are found to subside 
about twelve inches, which exposes them to an overflow 
unless protected by dykes from the ocean. Low sand¬ 
hills rise to the rear of the low lands, and back of this 
region the Sierras Parima and Pacarairna take their 
rise in a wild hilly country. The quantity of spark¬ 
ling mica in these mountains caused the early discov¬ 
erers to believe that they were rich in gold, a fable 
long since spoiled by examinations carefully con¬ 
ducted. 

3. — The climate of Guiana is not so deadly as that 
of some parts of the West Indies, but it is hot and 
moist, therefore more favorable to vegetal than tO’ 
human life. There are but few sudden changes or 
extremes, but there are two wet and two dry seasons in 
every year the transitions being accompanied by thun¬ 
der storms without strong winds. June, July and Au¬ 
gust are remai'kable for rains which are followed by 
dry weather during September, October and Novem¬ 
ber. Three months of'rain then follow in December, 
January and February, which lead up to fine dry 
weather in March, April and May. Sugar, rum and mo¬ 
lasses are the chief exports ; cotton and coffee were 
more largely raised but modern improvements in 



516 


COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 


machinery have made sugar the most profitable pro¬ 
duction. Timber is largely exported as the country 
contains valuable forests of large trees of special worth. 
The rnira tree attains a height of 150 feet, and its tim¬ 
ber is ranked with teak. The fruits of the country in¬ 
clude the banana, pine apple, guava, and other vari¬ 
eties of that class. Much excellent fish is obtained 
from the rivers and along the coast. 

4. —French Guiana lies between the rivers Maroni 
and Oyapok, covering an area of 18,000 square miles, 
and it has a population of less than three persons to 
two square miles of territory, the total number being 
about 26,000. The rainy season here lasts from Nov¬ 
ember to June, without interruption, and the trade 
winds maintain a tolerably even temperature, as they 
reduce the heat which the rays of the sun would other¬ 
wise make oppressive. The island of Cayenne lies 
but a little distance from the coast, and is used b}^ 
France as a penal settlement for political offenders. 
Cayenne is the capital of the colony and it bears a ter¬ 
rible name among French patriots who consider 
deportation to that island as equivalent to a sentence 
of death, only slower in operation. 

5. — Surinam or Dutch Guiana occupies the area of 
about 45,000 square miles between the rivers Maroni 
and Coreniin, and the Kiver Surinam gives its name to 
the territory through which it flows. The white pop¬ 
ulation of Surinam is only about 7,000 ; there are about 
1,000 aborigines, 40,000 negroes, and about 7,500 ma¬ 
roon descendants of runaway slaves, making about 
55,500 in all, or a little more than one person to the 
square mile. The Dutch settlement comes between 
those of the English and French, and the capital is lo¬ 
cated at Paramaribo. 

G. — British Guiana occupies the westernmost terri¬ 
tory, comprising an area of about 76,000 square miles, 
with a population of nearly 200,000 persons, of whom 
about 12,000 are white, 10,500 are aborigines, and the 
remainder of the inhabitants are Negroes, Coolies, Chi- 



REPUBLIC OF URUGUAY. 


517 


■nese, and of several mixed races. There are three* 
counties, Essequibo, Demerara and Berbice, and the- 
principal towns are Georgetown and New Amsterdam.. 
The River Essequibo is navigable for sixty miles, and 
the estuary at its mouth is twenty miles wide, the- 
length of the stream being 500 miles. The town of 
New Amsterdam has a population of about 9,000, and! 
Georgetown, much larger, has about 36,000 inhabit¬ 
ants. The principal export business of the province is^ 
conducted at Georgetown, and the population is largely 
of European origin. 

THE REPUBLIC OF URUGUAY. 

ABORIGINAL HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT. 

IS 10-1876. 

1 . — The first settlement in Uruguay was due to 
the Spaniards who took possession of the country in 
1516, but did not actually plant a colony until some 
years later. The Indians, at first friendly to the 
settlers, were soon driven into a warlike attitude, and 
troubles were almost incessant, although never abso¬ 
lutely formidable. The Viceroyalty of Peru was 
charged with the government of Uruguay until 1778, 
when a distinct Viceroyalty was established by Spain, 
for the provinces on the La Plata, in which Uruguay 
was included. When civil war commenced in 1810, 
to vindicate the right of self government claimed by 
the colonies, Uruguay declined to be a party to the 
contest; but in the year 1813, a change having come 
over the popular mind, the state joined the Confedera¬ 
tion against" Spain. In 1816, Gen. Pueyrredon was 
chosen President of the Republic formed by the junc¬ 
tion of Uruguay with the other colonies on the La 
Plata, but there'was so little governing power among 
the rulers of the Confederation that Uruguay seceded 
after a short experience of internecine strife. The es¬ 
tablishment of a separate Republic, as the “Republica 
Oriental del Uruguay,” provoked much jealousy, and 


518 


COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 


the Argentine Republic under Rosas struggled hard to 
subdue the seceders, and it was not until 1828 that the 
independence of Uruguay was recognized by the 
Argentine government. 

2. — AVars were continuous as long as Rosas re¬ 
mained Dictator in Buenos Ayres, and in 1852, a com¬ 
bination for the purpose having been made between 
Uruguay, Paraguay and Brazil, the forces of the Dic¬ 
tator were defeated in the battle of Monte Caseras, 
after which Rosas fled to England, and under Presi¬ 
dent Urquiza the demands of the seceding provinces 
to be treated as independent republics were conceded. 
Troubles with the Arancanian Indians and with other 
tribes have been occasional, but not great, and Uru¬ 
guay has enjoyed a condition of comparative peace. 
Wars with the neighboring republics have usually ter¬ 
minated without much bloodshed. 

3. — The area of Uruguay is about 66,700 square 
miles, and the population slightly exceeds 300,000. 
President Battle has enjoyed an opportunity to devel¬ 
op the resources of the country. The annual expen¬ 
diture is under $4,000,000, and the debt of the repub¬ 
lic but little exceeds $27,000,000. The army, on the 
peace establishment is only 3,000 strong. Monte Video 
is the capital, and the population of that city is esti¬ 
mated at 126,000. The principal exports are hides, 
meat, tallow, wool and horns. 

THE REPUBLIC OF VENEZUELA. 

ABORIGINAL HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT. 

1516 - 1876 . 

1 . — Spain made the first white settlement in Vene¬ 
zuela early in the sixteenth century, and the career of 
the governing class in that colony differed in no essen¬ 
tial particular from their conduct in the other colonies 
already mentioned. The Indians were oppressed until 
they fought, and were then beaten until they were glad 
to purchase peace by temporary submission; but as 


REPUBLIC OF VENEZUELA. 


519 


soon as the remembrance of former defeat was dulled, 
hostilities were recommenced in a desultory way that 
made it especially dangerous for a Spaniard to wander 
far from the settlements unless he was well armed. 
The settlers were oppressed until there was little ad¬ 
vantage to be gained by the prosecution of industries 
that were gainful elsewhere, and consequently there 
were times when the settlements were on the verge of 
starvation. 

2. — During the troubles in the beginning of this 
century, Bolivar, who was born in Caracas in July, 
1783, and had studied law in Madrid, joined the pat¬ 
riots under Miranda, who rose in rebellion against 
Spain in 1810. The revolution was successful, more 
especially after the young liberator obtained a separate 
command, and in 1813, his victories over the Spanish 
troops were so decisive, that he was received triumph¬ 
antly in his native town. The war was not yet ended, 
as in the following year Bolivar was defeated and 
driven out of Venezuela, but he succeeded in rallying 
his forces, and the end of 1816 saw the dictator at the 
head of a considerable army, with which he defeated 
the Spanish troops under Morillo repeatedly in 1817. 
A Congress assembled at Angostura and Bolivar was 
elected President, and in December of the, same year 
the Confederated Republic of Colombia was formed by 
the junction of New Grenada and Ecuador with Ven¬ 
ezuela, of which the Venezuelan Bolivar was made 
President. Venezuela was obliged to withdraw from 
the confederation in 1829, in consequence of the fac¬ 
tious troubles constantly prevailing, and the constituent 
parts of Colombia became three republics. The disso¬ 
lution caused much trouble at the time. The union 
was formally dissolved in 1831. 

3. —Venezuela consists of three states, Caracas, 
Maracaibo and Cindad Bolivar, and the cities of the 
same name are their respective capitals. Caracas is 
also the capital of the Republic, having a population 
of nearly 50,000. The area of the republic is estimated 


520 


COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 


at 868,200 square miles, and the population exceeds 
1,500,000. The products of Venezuela are coffee, cocoa, 
indigo, tobacco, cotton and hides, and the commerce of 
the republic is steadily increasing. The best cultivated 
districts are found in the state of Caracas, which is 
mountainous, with many beautiful and fertile valleys. 
The capital of the province and of Venezuela is sep¬ 
arated from its port at La Guayra by a mountain 
range. There is a somewhat dangerous harbor at La 
Guayra, which stands on a narrow belt of land between 
the sea and an almost perpendicular wall of rock ris¬ 
ing 3,000 feet, to the elevated plateau of the interior. 
The town of La Guayra is one of the warmest and 
most unhealthy places on the coast, but a population 
of 8,000 persons is concentrated there, in defiance of 
heat and earthquakes, to carry on the profitable busi¬ 
ness of exporting and importing goods. Caracas is 
twelve miles from La Guayra and 8,000 feet above the 
sea, consequently it does not suffer from excessive heat, 
and the city is supplied with excellent water in abund¬ 
ance, running near and also through the streets. An 
earthquake which visited Caracas in 1812 destroyed 
12,000 people. There is an excellant college and sev¬ 
eral hospitals in Caracas, and the streets are well 
paved. The buildings are also very handsome. Pres¬ 
ident Blanco is now the chief executive of Venezuela. 

TEE KEPUBLIC OF PARAGUAY. 

ABORIGINAL HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT. 

1516-1876. 

1. — Paraguay was a Spanish colony early in the 
sixteenth century, and has suffered all the conse¬ 
quences of that fatal connection, in which the white 
population tyrannized over the Indians, and was in 
turn despoiled by the governing class appointed by 
the Crown without regard to character or fitness; and 
in consequence there is but little history to give, save 
that which has already been recorded in connection 


REPUBLIC OF PARAGUAY. 


521 


with the other colonies on the La Plata. The Vice¬ 
roy of Peru was the distant Governor of Paraguay 
until 1778, but his absence was not altogether an ad¬ 
vantage, as his deputies levied exactions upon the 
people for their own profit, as well as in the name and 
on behalf of the Viceroy. When the provinces of 
Pio de la Plata or Eiver of Silver were united into 
one Viceroyalty, in 1778, Paraguay was one of the 
associated colonies. But little benefit came from the 
change. The expulsion of the Viceroy in 1810, was 
the act of Buenos Ayres mainly, and Paraguay did 
not participate in the revolution until nearly three 
years later, after a long course of civil war had much 
injured all the colonies. 

2.—When Monte Video had been captured from 
Spain, and the last stronghold of the monarchy was 
lost, in 1812, Paraguay joined the Confederation in 
the establishment of a constituent Assembly, which 
met at Buenos Ayres and in 1813 issued the coin 
of the Kepublic. The subsequent battles with the 
troops of Spain were participated in by Paraguay, 
in 1817, 1818 and 1821, when the Koyal arms were 
badly defeated, but continual struggles on the part of 
ambitious men to pervert the government to their own 
ends made the liberties of the people only a name. 
Paraguay, having seceded from the Argentine Repub¬ 
lic, was involved in a ruinous war with the forces un¬ 
der Rosas, until that despotic ruler was vanquished at 
Monti Caseras by the united forces of Brazil, Uru¬ 
guay and Paraguay, under the command of Gen. Ur- 
quiza; when the commander having become Presi¬ 
dent of Paraguay as an independent Republic, in June, 
1862. The Argentine Republic again made war on 
Paraguay in 1866, but the action of the government 
was strongly condemned, and in several provinces of 
the Argentine Republic there were outbreaks of the 
populace, more especially in Catamarca and Mendoza, 
which were not subdued without much hard fighting. 
Since the conclusion of that war, Paraguay has been 


522 


COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 


able to develop its internal resources, and, under the 
rule of President Kiverola, has made great progress. 
The area of the country is about 63,800 square miles, 
and the population a liitle over 1,000,000. The capi¬ 
tal of Paraguay is located at Ascension^ which city has 
a population of 48,000 souls, and the principal ex¬ 
ports of the country consist of yerba mate, manioc, 
tobacco, lumber, hides and tropical fruits. The gov¬ 
ernment is administered with great economy, and the 
attempts that have been made to encourage manufac¬ 
tures will ultimately build up a great nation, if they 
should be persevered in and assisted by an extension 
of the blessings of education and freedom in worship. 

THE KEPUBLIC OF PERU. 

ABORIGINAL HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT. 

H 7 O-JS 70 . 

1 , — Particulars have already been given as to the 
wars and migrations that affected the destiny of Peru, 
prior to the invasion by Spain, in the early part of 
the sixteenth century, which the reader will find in 
the brief sketch of Ecuador in this volume. The 
Indians had arrived at a high degree of civilization 
under the rule of Pluayana Capac, the great Inca, 
who, towards the end of the fifteenth century, con¬ 
cluded to divide his territory between his sons Huas- 
car and Atahnallpa. The throne of Peru fell into the 
hands of Atahnallpa by contest in 1530, and his 
brother, Huascar, remained a prisoner in his own 
palace until Atahnallpa was defeated and slain by 
the Spaniards in his daring attempts to expel the 
invaders. The oppressions of the conquerors made 
tiie former rule of the Incas especially dear to the 
Indian population, but the story has been told so 
often that it is only necessary to say, that here as well 
as elsewhere, Spain destroyed her own projects by the 
rigidity of her exactions, and forced the natives into 
attitudes of defiance and desperation. 


REPUBLIC OF PERU. 


623 


2. — The Viceroy of Spain resided in Peru, and 
from that point every scheme of oppression originated 
until the year 1778, when a district viceroyalty was 
established at Rio de la Plata. Cuzco, the most popu¬ 
lous department in modei’n Peru, was the region 
favoied by the Incas in the days of their glory, the 
city of Cuzco, and capital of the department, having 
been the capital of the ancient government. Massive 
specimens of Peruvian architecture ai-e visible in 
Cuzco, and the city is delightfully situated about 
11,380 feet above the level of the sea, surrounded by 
a country mountainous in some parts, with extensive 
pampas and table lands, capable of sustaining im¬ 
mense quantites of stock. The soil is fertile and the 
earth abounds in metals, so that the mineral resources 
of tlie country are as great as the agricultural and 
pastoral. The area of the province embraces 45,000 
square miles and sustains a population of nearly 500,- 
000. The population of the city is about 40,000, and 
there are several manufactories of cotton, woolens and 
jewelry. There aie in the city of Cuzco several con¬ 
vents, a fine cathedral, a mint and a university, but the 
dominance of the Catholic faith has the effect of di¬ 
minishing the attractiveness of general learning. 

*3,—Peru was among the first of the colonies to 
throw off the yoke of Spain, when the movements of 
Nopoleon in Europe gave to the people a possibility 
of success, but the concentration of force at that point 
delayed the day of liberation, in spite of every effort, 
until Bolivar, having won a great victory over the 
Spanish forces at Carabolo in June, 1821, led an army 
into that country from Venezuela in the following 
year, and finally expelled the royalist forv.es. Bolivar 
was proclaimed Dictator of Peru in 1823, an honor 
well deserved, and, for a wonder, not abused by the 
possessor* The adulation bestowed upon Bolivar in 
his tour through the country, after he had driven out 
the Spaniards, was enough to have converted an ordi¬ 
nary man into a despot. The southern part of Pern 


524 COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 

was converted into the Kepublic of Bolivia, to perpet¬ 
uate the name of the liberator. 

4, — Peru was always rich in the precious metals 
but the avidity of the Spaniards to procure riches 
without labor on their own part induced so much des¬ 
potism towards the Indian miners that many of the best 
mines were deliberately ruined by the laborers to re¬ 
venge themselves upon their cruel taskmasters. Gold 
and silver are found in the river beds as well as in the 
rocks, whence much has been removed by the gradual 
process of disintegration ; and besides these metals, 
iron, copper, tin, mercurj^, lead and salt abound. 
There are admirable and extensive coal deposits which 
will be of more value in extending the manufacturing 
interests than even gold and silver. The Spaniards 
came into the country in 1538, but although con¬ 
quered and driven from the old seat of government, 
the descendant of the Incas did not abandon the 
struggle until 1557, when he resigned his authority 
with great reluctance. After that date the Indian 
races still continued to fight as often as opportunity 
occurred, where the weapons of the European soldiery 
were compensated on their side, by some advantage 
equivalent, and the Spaniards could hardly feel that 
they were masters until about the year 1780. The 
Colonies under Spain never reached so high a plane 
of civilization as that under the Incas of Peru which 
was disturbed by their presence. The transfer of part 
of the authority of the Peruvian Viceroy to the new 
appointee of the King at Rio de la Plata in 1788 did 
not really affect the colony in any degree. 

5. — Peru, having become independent in conse¬ 
quence of the united efforts of the several colonies 
against Spain, had then to undergo a series of convul¬ 
sions in consequence of the designs of military chiefs 
who wished to substitute their own despotism for that 
of Spain. In the year 1835, Gen. Santa Cruz, then 
Protector of Bolivia, invaded Peru and annexed part 
of its territory to that of the republic over which he 


REPUBLIC OF PERU. 


525 


ruled, but eventually Santa Cruz was defeated and 
expelled from the government of Bolivia by the inter- 
. position of Chili and the Argentine Eepublic in 1839. 
Ambitious designs on the part of Gamarro involved 
the country in another war with Bolivia in 1841, but 
when peace was restored the old boundaries were re¬ 
stored. The area of the Eepublic is about 510,000 
square miles, and its population about 3,200,000. 
The public expenditure is e,stimated at $72,000,000 
per annum, and the public debt exceeds $100,000,000. 
The standing army aggregates nearly 5,000 men and 
the w'ar navy consists of 20 vessels carrying 62 guns. 
The mercantile navy consists of 120 ships, aggregating 
about 30,000 tons. The imports annually amount to 
about $44,000,000 and the exports to more than $80,- 
000.000. The main exports are guano — of which in 
1866, 456,186 tons were exported — saltpeter, cotton, 
wool, borax, hides, silver and copper; and the princi¬ 
pal city is Lima, with a population of 140,000 souls. 

6. — Callao is the port of Lima, from which it is 
distant about six miles. This is a fortified town in 
northern Peru, arid the fortress is a very fine structure. 
There is a railroad connecting the port with the city, 
and the amount of shipping and general business 
transacted in Callao supports a population of nearly 
11,000 persons. The harbor and roadstead are par¬ 
ticularly safe, being protected by the island of San 
Lorenzo, which operates as a breakwater and forms 
the best shelter obtainable on the coast of Peru. 
There is a commodious quay and quite sufficient 
wharf accommodation for a still larger traffic. There 
w^as an earthquake in 1746 which almost entirely de¬ 
stroyed the town, but since that time only light 
shocks, comparatively speaking, have been experi¬ 
enced. The city of Lima suffered on that occasion 
almost as much as Callao, the shocks being repeated 
every seven or eight minutes, and over 200 of the 
most violent description were then counted within 
j twenty four hours. Peru is particularly marked by 


526 


COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 


such convulsions: in the year 1868, when the latest 
of the great shocks struck the western coast of South 
America, the flourishing city of Arica, the principal, 
shipping port for the Eepublic of Bolivia, disappeared 
in a few moments. Arequipa was levelled to the 
ground and 50,000 people left homeless at one stroke. 

In the Andes of Ecuador the city of Catocachy disap¬ 
peared, and a lake now covers the spot; while the 
cities of Ibarra, Ottavalla, and other places were swal¬ 
lowed up, an aggregate of 10,000 persons being lost in 
the vast convulsion. At Arica, at the same time, the 
sea retreated from the shore carrying all the ships that 
were in the harbor as if their cables had been straw- 
bands. When the wave returned, four of the ships 
w'ere dashed to pieces instantly, and the fifth was car¬ 
ried two miles inland. 

7. — The city of Arequipa, just mentioned as hav¬ 
ing been desolated by the earthquake of Aug. 13 and 
14, 1868, is about fourteen miles from the Volcano of 
Arequipa, and is the capital of the department of the 
same name in Peru. The area of the department is 
201,000 square miles, and its population 180,000. The j 
soil is fertile, producing grapes which are manufac¬ 
tured into wine. Gold, silver, lead, zinc and coal 
abound. The city is about forty miles from the Pa- ; 
cific Ocean, on the Chili Kiver, and on the plain of ! 
Quilca, 7,850 feet above the sea. The town is well 
built and beautiful, has several convents, a cathedral i 
and a college, and the houses which are of stone are ■ 
only two stories high as a precautionary measure. 
There have been several earthquakes affecting Are¬ 
quipa, that in 1868 destroyed more than $12,000,000 
w^orth of property and 500 lives, but an active trade 
is done here, and a railroad connects the city with 
Mollendo on the Pacific. According to Buckle, there ■ 
is some connection between earthquakes, volcanoes | 
and priestly intolerance, and certainly it would be I 
difficult to find a country in which these several afflic¬ 
tions are more persistently concurrent than in South 




PATAGONIA AND FALKLAND ISLANDS. 527 

America, whether they are joined as cause and effect 
being the only question. 

PATAGONIA AND FALKLAND ISLANDS. 

1. — To complete the record of South America, it 
is necessary briefly to mention Patagonia, the Falk¬ 
land Islands and the Islands of Galapagos, South 
Georgia and Aurora. Patagonia, with an area of 376,- 
800 square miles, has only a population of 24,000, or 
rather more than fifteen square miles to each inhabit¬ 
ant. The Falkland Islands consists of about 200 is¬ 
lands, in the south Atlantic, with an aggregate area of 
13,000 square miles, and a population of less than one 
thousand persons. The two largest islands, known as 
East and West Falkland, have been at different times 
the homes of French, Spanish and English settlements. 
The English are now in possession. In winter the tem¬ 
perature ranges from 30° to 50°, and in the summer 
from 40° to 65°, with frequent rains and high winds. 
No trees nor fruits grow here, but the pasturage is ex¬ 
cellent, and horses and cattle originally placed on the 
islands by the Buenos Aryeans have'increased won¬ 
derfully. Davis discovered the islands in 1592, and 
Strong gave them their present name in 1690. Port 
Stanley is a thriving village in East Falkland, with 
an excellent harbor, and the population of the colony 
in 1875, was under nine hundred. 

2. — The Galapagos Islands, otherwise known as the 
“ Tortoise Islands,” are thirteen in number, and evi¬ 
dently of a volcanic origin. They are in the Pacific 
Ocean and on the equator. The flora and fauna of 
this group are peculiarly interesting. The Ecaudori- 
ans took possession of the islands in 1832, and planted 
a penal settlement which is still maintained, but there 
is no population except prisoners and those inter¬ 
ested in their retention. Land turtles are found 
in the Galapago Islands in great numbers. The 
Aurora Islands and South Georgia Islands comprise 


528 


WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 


respectively 210 and 1570 square miles, but being en¬ 
tirely uninhabited, they have no interest for our 
readers. 


WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 

DISCOVERY AND SETTLE3IENT. 

1492 - 1870 . 

1 . — The West India Islands were the first land seen 
by Christopher Columbus, when the great discoverer 
was on his way, as he seems to have believed, toward 
the East Indies, and in consequence the land thus 
found, being supposed the westernmost extremity of 
the coveted country, was called the West Indies. 
There was already serious disquietude in the minds of 
the sailors, who feared their arrival at a point from 
which return would be impossible, and Columbus 
named a time within which he would turn back, un-> 
less a land fall had been made. That time had not 
expired, when the welcome cry of “ Land Ho ! ” from 
the mast head of his Caravel announced the success of 
the expedition. There had been a proposition prior 
to this time, to throw Columbus overboard, but the 
mutineers who had no skill in navigation, once they 
were out of sight of land, feared their incapacity to re¬ 
turn without the mariner, whose death they desired 
yet dreaded. 

2. — The land thus discovered on the 12th of Octo¬ 
ber, 1492, is supposed to have been San Salvador, oth¬ 
erwise Cat Island, and was certainly one of the Baha¬ 
mas, a group of islands, fourteen in number, now 
possessed by Great Britain. Columbus, continuing 
his voyage, landed in Cuba, finding the natives a mild 
and trustful people, who conceded to their new visitors 
every kindness, until they discovered that the com¬ 
panions of Columbus were not necessarily good men. 
The aboriginal name of the island is that which still 



i. WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 529 

^ continues to be used, but Columbus gave to the terri- 
tory the name of Juana. 

\ 3. — The islands thus opened to European adven¬ 

ture were generally called the Antilles, which generic 
term applies to all the West India Islands, except the 
Bahamas, and the word was intended to convey that 
they were the islands that must be passed before the 
, main land could be reached. Those islands extend 
' from the Gulf of Mexico almost to the Gulf of Paria, 

I between the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. 

I There are two groups — the Greater and Lesser Antil¬ 
les, the latter being known as the Caribbean Islands, 
easternmost of the group. The Greater Antilles in¬ 
clude the four largest islands of the archipelago: Cu¬ 
ba, Hayti or San Domingo, Jamaica and Porto Eico. 
There are many smaller islands along the coasts of the 
Great Antilles included in that group. 

4. — The Antilles, being in the torrid zone, are 
subject to frequent hurricanes and earthquakes, and 
are, no doubt, of volcanic origin. High mountains, 
of granitic formation, are found in the centers of the 
islands. The Lesser Antilles are numerous, but small 
in size, arranged in a crescent, with its convexity to 
the east. The Windward or South Caribbean Islands 
are, Barbadoes, Grenada, the Grenadinis, Martinique, 
St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Trinidad and Tobago. The 

■ Leeward or North Caribbean Islands are, Anguilla, An¬ 
tigua, Barbuda, Deseada, Dominica, Guadeloupe, Marie 
Galenti, Montserrat, Nevis, Saba, St. Bartholomew, St. 
Christopher, St. Eustatious, St. Martin, Santa Cruz, 
and the Virgin Islands, still smaller, which are held 
by the British, Spaniards and Danes. Some of the 
Lesser Antilles are coralline, and others are of vol¬ 
canic birth. 

5, — The Antilles contain, on the whole, about 
4,220,000 inhabitants, and comprise an area of about 
92,000 square miles. The staple products are sugar, 
rum, tobacco, cotton and coffee. The Windward 
Islands are all British except Martinique, which be- 

34 





580 


KEPUBLIC OF HAYTL 


long to France. Great Britain holds the major portion 
of the Lesser Antilles. France has colonies in Des^ 
eada, Guadeloupe, Marie Galante and St. Martin, in 
the last of which the Dutch have also a settlement. 
St. Bartholomew is Swedish; three of the Virgin Isl- 
lands are British. The largest part of the population 
are negroes and rnulattoes, but all free, except in the 
Spanish possessions of Cuba and Porto Kico. This 
group of islands is espeeially related to our conti¬ 
nent, not only in the order of discovery, but from 
their position, being southeast of Florida, in the re¬ 
cess formed by the narrowing of our land, where 
Central America intervenes. Having thus generally 
introduced the archipelago to our readers, the constitu¬ 
ent parts may be considered in relation to the coun¬ 
tries whereof they are dependencies, or in their posi¬ 
tion as independent Kepublics. 

THE KEPUBLIC OF HAYTL 
ABORIGINAL HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT. 

1492 - 1870 . 

1 . — Hayti is, next to Cuba, the largest of the 
Antilles, and the island is divided into two states, the 
Republic of Santo Domingo, and the Republic of 
Hayti. Originally the island was called Hispaniola 
by Columbus, but the name Hayti, which in the 
Caribbean tongue signifies mountainous, has outlived 
the Spanish appellation. The first settlement made on 
this island was called Isabella, in honor of the Queen 
whose favor procured for Columbus the scanty atten¬ 
tion that was bestowed upon him in the court of Cas¬ 
tile, and the second settlement, which was founded in 
1496, four years after Isabella, was named Santo Do¬ 
mingo. The colonies first planted were prosperous in 
the extreme, and in 1506 there were fifteen upon the 
island, which was erected into a Bishopric in 1511. 
The prosperity enjoyed by the Spaniards was wrung 
from the lives of the natives with such terrible exac- 


IIEPUBLIC OF IIAYTL 


531 


tioBS, that the people steadily decreased in numbers 
from the very beginning, until the aboriginal race ap¬ 
peared likely to be destrojmd entirely. When the 
iirst colony was planted, there were 2,000,000 aborigines 
on the island, or at any rate that w’as the estimate then 
made; yet wdihin a quarter of a century, so terrible 
had been the labors imposed upon the natives, who 
w’ere compelled to work in the mines and otlierwise to 
toil without ceasing, and so frightful had been the 
slaughter wdth wdiich insurrections were subdued, that 
it was found expedient to introduce negro slaves to 
, w’ork the mines and plantations for the conquerors. 
This wms not done as an act of mercy toward the na¬ 
tives, but because their numbers had hallen below that 
demanded to carry on the designs of their masters. 
There w^ere only 21,000 in the year 1511, and the de¬ 
crease continued steadily. It is doubted at the present 
time w^hether any of the descendants of the aborigines 
of Hayti exist. They wmre completely crushed out of 
being by the cruelties of the Spaniards. 

‘ 2. — When there were no longer natives to be tor¬ 

tured to death as slaves, the Spaniards betook them- 
' selves to later conquests, and recommenced in Mexico,. 
; in Peru, and in Central America, the line of conduct. 

I w^hich had proved so fatal to the Indians in Hayti, 
The bulk of the Spanish colonists departed, and the- 
native race did not recover its strength, so that for a 
long time the island w^as little better than a waste, ex- 
1 cept where negro labor could be employed. Diego, 
the son of Christopher Columbus, who became Vice¬ 
roy, w’as one of the first to employ negro slaves in 
Hayti upon his plantations; but in that age it was 
considered an honor to have reduced manhood to sla¬ 
very. One of the adventurers, ennobled by Queen 
Elizabeth, Sir John Hawkins, caused a chained negro 
to be engraved on his coat of arms, in order that pos¬ 
terity might know that he claimed to have been the 
originator of negro slavery. Happily the moral sense 
as well as intellectual powder can be developed. The 



532 


REPUBLIC OF HAYTI. 


claim of Diego to the Yiceroyalty of the West Indies 
was recognized by Charles V of Spain, but he died in 
1526, and his son surrendered the Yiceroyalty for 
titles and a pension in 1510. The male line of the dis¬ 
coverer died out in the next generation. 

3 . — A number of French adventurers settled on 
the island of Tortuga, in the year 1630, having prob¬ 
ably left their native land in consequence of the fail¬ 
ure of the Huguenot designs at Rochelle ; and from 
Tortuga they soon spread to the main island, where 
their numbers rapidly increased, notwithstanding the 
utmost endeavors of the Spaniards to drive them from 
their adopted homes. When the treaty of R^yswick 
was concluded by Louis XIY of France, in 1697, 
Spain ceded part of the island of Hayti to that king¬ 
dom, and in 1714 a French department was established 
in the western part, the boundaries were more definite¬ 
ly fixed in the year 1777, as running from north to 
south, the line of demarcation being drawn from the 
mouth of the Daxabon or Massacre River to that of 
the Pederualls. The prosperity of the French colony 
was very brightly marked by comparison with the 
wretched condition of the Spanish dependency. In 
1792, the importations from France, received in San 
Domingo, were valued at $75,000,000, and the exports 
to France were nearly $70,000,000. There were then 
in the colony 780,000 persons, of whom 40,000 were 
white, 700,000 slaves, and 40,000 free colored people. 

4 . — Y^hen the revolutionary ideas of France be¬ 
came known all over the world, after the fall of the 
Bastile in 1789, there were echoes of free thought 
among the colored population in San Domingo. Many 
of the free negroes were wealthy men, holding large 
estate?, but because of the color of their skins they 
were devoid of political rights, although many of them 
were possessed of considerable culture. They agitated 
to be placed on the same footing with the white popu¬ 
lation, and in 1790, finding that force had been used 
in France, as formerly in the United States, with good 


REPUBLIC OF HAYTL 


68S 


effect, they ors^anized troops to enforce their demands,. 
The white population defeated the free negroes, and 
their leaders were cruelly treated ; but in the follow¬ 
ing year, 1791, the National Assembly of France con¬ 
sistently allowed the claim of the colored free men of 
San Domingo to participate in the liberties which, 
nntil within a brief term, the French citizen had not 
shared in himself. The slaves now broke into an in¬ 
surrection, and their numbers exceeded the white pop- 
nlation by seventeen to one. To add to the embarrass^ 
ments of the time, France, having tried and executed 
the King and Queen, was outlawed by the combined 
sovereigns of Europe, and, as incidents of the war then 
raging, the Spaniards and the English made onslaughts 
upon San Domingo. The French government, having 
rolled back the tide of invasion from her own frontiers, 
by the victories won by Dumonriez over the forces of 
the allies, was enabled^ to send commissioners to the 
colony, empowered to deal with the color difficulty in 
a revolutionary spirit. The principles of liberty, 
equality and fraternity were applied to the contending 
races, and Toussaint I’Ouverture was appointed com¬ 
mander (ff the army raised by his countrymen. The 
negro commander expelled the invaders, and order 
was restored. The whole island was ceded to Fraiice 
in 1795, Spain having begun to discover that there 
was strength in democracy, and Toussaint TOuverture 
became Governor of the two colonies. There was an 
exceptional measure of prosperity in Hayti during this 
remarkable government. 

5 . — Napoleon Bonaparte, whose aspirations for 
libert}^ had been uttered in the form of pamphlets, 
while he continued a subaltern in the French army, 
had changed his views long before he won the great 
victory at Marengo in 1800, and in the following year 
the First Consul sent an expedition to the island under 
Gen. Leclerc, with instructions to reestablish slavery. 
It is not certain that even the arms of Napoleon would 
have prevailed over Toussaint I’Ouverture, with the 




534 


KEPUBLIC OF HAYTL 


disparity of forces that could be brought into the field, 
but, by an act of cowardly treachery, the negro Gov¬ 
ernor was entrapped into captivity and sent to France, 
where he died, shortly after, in prison. Gen. Dessa- 
lines fought the battle of freedom with great vigor 
and wisdom, and Gen. Leclerc did not win laurels in 
San Domingo. The army, much reduced by sickness, 
finally capitulated to an English squadron in Novem¬ 
ber, 1803, and one month later San Domingo became 
an independent republic by its own declaration, with 
Gen. Dessalines Governor for life. 

6. — The military liberator and Governor aped the 
career of Napoleon Bonaparte, who, in IMay, 1804. was 
proclaimed Emperor of France, and in October of the 
same year, Dessalines broke the constitution, which he 
had sworn to preserve, in order to assume the title of 
Emperor of Hayti. Civil wars ensued, and after two 
years of excesses in the attempt to sustain an absurd 
dignity, Dessalines was assassinated. The result of 
this wicked attempt on the part of Dessalines was an 
almost complete disunion among the people. The old 
Spanish element went back to its Spanish allegiance, 
and Ilayti was for a long time a prey to anarchy, in 
consequence of the efforts of contending chiefs to be¬ 
come dictators. During the year 1822, Jean Pierre 
Boyer, a mulatto, succeeded in uniting the whole 
island under his government. In his youth Boyer 
served in the French army, and during the civil wars 
on the island was an officer under Pethion, against 
Christophe, the negro King, who was crowned in 1812 
as Henry I. The cruelty and oppressions of Chris¬ 
tophe, who surrounded his throne with a burlesque no¬ 
bility, such as the Duke of Marmalade, provoked a 
revolt which the King could not subdue, and that 
ruler committed suicide in October, 1820. Before that 
event occurred, Pethion having died. Boyer had been, 
chosen President, and, upon the death of Christophe, 
the island fell once more under one administration. 
Boyer ruled with much wisdom at first, but latterly 


REPUBLIC OF HAYTT. 


535 


his measures became arbitrary, and.it was claimed that 
he gave preferences to rnulattoes, which caused the 
negroes to rise against him. lie was driven from the 
government and expelled from the island in 18-12. 
The independence of the republic was acknowledged 
by France in 1822, and when Boyer was driven out he 
s})ent the remainder of his life in Paris, where he died 
in 1850, aged 74 years. 

7. — Upon the expulsion of Boyer in 1812, the two 
sections divided once more; the eastern portion became 
the Republic'of Santo Domingo, and Ilayti again fell 
a prey to internal dissensions. Soulouque, who was 
chosen President of Hayti in 1817, assumed the title 
of Emperor in 1819, and administered the imperial 
form until 1858, when an insurrection compelled his 
retirement. President Geffrard, who succeeded Sou¬ 
louque, had been made a Duke by the Emperor, when 
the imperial style was assumed. Geffrard, son of the 
General of the same name, who cooperated with Des- 
salines against the French troops, was a Griffe^ that is 
to say he had three parts of African blood, but he 
espoused the cause of the rnulattoes, and so procured 
a combinatian of parties in his favor, llis rank in 
the army gave him a claim to consideration, and when 
Soulouque became so bad that a change was inevita¬ 
ble, Geffrard conducted the revolution. The ex-Ein- 
peror was banished in 1860. President Geffrard ruled 
in Ilayti until 1867, when he was expelled, and passed 
the remainder of his career in Jamaica. Sal nave, the 
next President, was driven out in 1870, after a term 
of only three years. President Missage-Saget restored 
order, and Ilayti once more became prosperous. Un¬ 
der his rule imports rose to $5,880,000 per annum, and 
exports expanded to $8,260,000 ; the commercial navy 
was represented by 111 ships with a burthen of 60,000 
tons. The war navy consisted of seven ships carrying 
16 guns, and the army on a peace footing was 6,000 
strong. The annual expenditure was brought down 
to $2,900,000, and the national debt of $10,090,000 


536 


KEPUBLIC OF HAYTL 


was in a fair way towards liquidation, being but a 
small matter for a prosperous people 572,000 in num¬ 
ber, with a territory of 10,000 square miles. 

8. — Gren. Michel Domingue succeeded in regular 
course to the Presidency by popular election, and the 
course of prosperity entered upon at the commence¬ 
ment of this decade is being continued with every 
promise of permanency. War may be said to be the 
normal condition between the Haytien Republic and 
that of Santo Domingo, and in consequence, when the 
smaller government—which will be noticed in due 
course — desired to procure annexation by the United 
States, very considerable activity was exhibited by 
the Haytien government to prevent the consummation 
of the treaty. It was claimed in 1870, that some offi¬ 
cers of the U. S. Navy had behaved arbitrarily in the 
ports of Hayti, but the mere representation of the fact 
in Congress provoked an investigation which will not 
fail to be of material value hereafter. Haytien troops 
periodically overrun the territories of Santo Domingo, 
but it is probable that the two territories will eventu¬ 
ally combine in harmony. 

9. — Hayti is composed of four departments, and 
Port au Prince is the capital. The legislative power 
is vested in two chambers, and the executive in a 
President elected for four _years by the representative 
Assembly. The annual expenditure exceeds the in¬ 
come by about $420,000, but the rapid developments 
of commerce promise to terminate that anomal}^ with¬ 
in the present decade. Within ten years the burthen 
engaged in commerce has increased by 90.000 tons, 
and there is room for a very much greater increase. For 
want of roads or canals the timber resources of the 
island are all but useless ; coffee culture is carelessly 
prosecuted; indigo, vanilla and tobacco are almost 
abandoned, and sugar does not demand as much at¬ 
tention as the value of the traffic would warrant. 
Coffee, cotton and cocoa are exported largely, and 
rum very largely, but in every department there is 
room for development. 


REPUBLIC OF SANTO DOMINGO. 


537 


10 . — The island altogether comprises about 28,000 
square miles, including the lesser islands adjoining, 
and the greatest length is 405 miles. The greatest 
breadth is from north to south, 105 miles from Cape 
Isabella to Cape Beata. The coast line of about 1500 
miles has many excellent bays and harbors in which 
navies might find shelter, the Bay of Sarnana being of 
especial importance in the passage to the Mexican 
Gulf. There, are several mountain ranges, the highest 
peak being 9,000 feet above the sea. There are beau¬ 
tiful savannahs exceedingly fertile, and many of the 
mountain ridges are culturable to the very summit, or 
covered with virgin forests. The plains are beautiful, 
fertile and extensive, sloping almost insensibly from 
the mountain sides to the sea. There are several fine 
rivers, and the surface generally is well watered. 
Some of the streams are very rapid. There are great 
varieties of soil and temperature which are increased 
by the different attitudes possible, and by the preval¬ 
ence of trade winds. The transition from the wet 
seasons to the dry, and vice versa, are generally vio¬ 
lent, and during May and June the rain descends in 
torrents, which causes the rivers to overflow their 
banks. The heat during the day in June, July and 
August rises to lOJ'’ in the shade on the plains, chang¬ 
ing with altitudes to from 77° to 66°. The nights 
range from 59° to 62°. Earthquakes and hurricanes 
are frequent. The mineral treasures of the island are 
considerable, including lignite, which has been on 
many occasions mistaken for coal, but there are also 
coal deposits. Gold, silver, platina, iron, copper, tin 
and mercury may also be named, but the list is not 
then completed. 

THE REPUBLIC OF SANTO DOMINGO. 

1842-1S76. 

1 . — The. early history of Santo Domingo was incor¬ 
porated necessarily with that of Hayti and the Island 



538 REPUBLIC OF SANTO DOMINGO. 

of Hispaniola, but from the time of the expulsion of 
President Boyer in 18i2, there has been a struggling 
republic of about 150,000 people in a territory embrac¬ 
ing about 17,800 square miles, fighting an almost 
daily battle with the neighboring nation. In 1849, 
Buenaventura Baez, a mulatto, was chosen President, 
being reelected in 1856, and again in 1865, and from 
before that time the efforts of all the more intelligent 
politicians of that country have been directed towards 
procuring the annexation of Santo Domingo in some 
form to the United States. President Baez came to 
the United States in 1874. Particulars as to the soil, 
climate, position and peculiarities of the republic, hav¬ 
ing been mainly embodied in the Haytien sketch, we 
have room to glance at the proposed annexation very 
briefly. 

2. —Nearly thirty years have elapsed since the first 
proposal was made to annex Santo Domingo or to pro¬ 
cure the cession of certain parts of the territory to the 
United States, but democratic statesmen could not 
face the difficulty of dealing with a colored population 
on terms of equality, hence the many inquiries, com¬ 
missions and investigations appointed between 1844 
and 1860, practically came to nothing. Negotiations 
were made with President Polk’s Administration in 
1845, but the only results were two commissions and 
a succession of favorable reports. President Pierce 
sent Gen. McClellan on a mission to Santo Domingo, 
and the peninsula of Samana as a naval station was 
thought by that officer essential to the greatness of the 
United States as a naval power. Still the hopes of 
the people of Santo Domingo were doomed to disap¬ 
pointment, and the civil war that distracted the United 
States from 1861 to 1865 precluded the possibility of 
further consideration. 

3. —Mr. Seward, with a considerable staff, visited 
the island in 1867, and the Secretary of State was fa¬ 
vorably impressed, but President Johnson had other 
projects in view, and once more the question stood 


EEPUBLIC OF SANTO DOMINGO. 


539 


over. Upon the accession of President Grant, the 
Baez administration in Santo Domingo urged the mat¬ 
ter with renewed^ energy and commissions of inquiry 
were once more in order, but still nothing was done. 
Alaska had been, as it was then erroneously supposed, 
too dearly bought, and people were disinclined to 
think of annexation; an argument quite sufficient to 
deter a cautious and constitutional President from 
making a movement of the kind. The difficulties of 
Santo Domingo became so great that a communication 
was sent to Washington, that unless the United States 
would take action, some other power would be ap¬ 
proached with the proposition; and thereupon there 
was a confidential mission to Santo Domingo which 
seemed likely to result in annexation in some form. 
The government was harassed by its warlike neighbors 
and encumbered by a debt of $1,500,000, equal to $10 
per head for the whole population, while industries 
were languishing, and the man that planted could not 
forecast who would be likely to reap. 

4. — Gen. Babcock returned, after two visits, with 
a treaty, offering very favorable terms to the United 
States, and in proof of the good faith of the proposi¬ 
tion, it had been ratified by a popular vote in Santo 
Domingo, 15,000 casting their ballots in its favor and 
only 400 against it; but upon the presentation of the 
treaty to the Senate of the United States, the debates 
and delays were fatal to the first treat}^ by effluxion of 
time. The treaty having been renewed, a brilliant op¬ 
position was led by Senators Sumner and Carl Schurz; 
the affirmative being sustained by Senators Conkling 
and iMorton. Personal difficulties postponed a decis¬ 
ion and then it was made to appear that aggressive 
conduct toward llayti was placing the United States 
in a false position. In face of all those complications 
a larger commission was recommended to Congress by 
the President to make full inquiries into the premises. 
The result of that message was another struggle in 
both houses, but eventually an overwhelming vote 


540 


REPUBLIC OF SANTO DOMINGO. 


affirmed the desirability of full investigation, and the 
commission being named and approved went to Santo 
Domingo from New York in January, 1871. 

5. — The work of the commission was thorough 
and well done in every aspect, and the report from a 
scientific and social, as well as from political points of 
view, may well be considered a masterpiece. Domin¬ 
icans can obtain a better idea of their own resources 
from that document than from their own lifetime of 
experience. The Bay of Samana, as a naval station, 
is properly considered a very important matter, and 
many arguments were supplied in favor of the partial 
annexation, should Congress refuse to sanction the 
larger measure ; terms being offered by the Domini¬ 
can government that would cover any proposition. 
The whole of the lands of the republic were offered 
as security if the United States government would as¬ 
sume the responsibility of $1,500,000, the debt op¬ 
pressing the administration in the Antilles. The 
President, in sending the report to the Senh.te, did not 
make a recommendation, but left the question to be 
considered and dealt with by the people and their rep¬ 
resentatives. No further action has been taken, and 
possibly none will be taken, but in the event of that 
island falling into the hands of any warlike European 
power, much injury might result to the United States 
at some future time; more than could possibly accrue 
from the maintenance of a naval and military station 
there and the assumption of a debt so small. The an¬ 
nual expenditure of the Republic is about $2,000,000. 
Its imports are $520,000, and its exports are about 
$690,000. Its chief shipments are tobacco, wood, 
wax, honey, hides, dye stuffs and coffee, but in every 
department the trade could be quintupled directly. 
The capital of the state is San Domingo, with a popu¬ 
lation of about 15,000, and the institutions of the 
country are fairly republican. 


CUBA. 


541 


CUBA. 

ABORIGINAL HISTORY AND S1:TTLE3IENT. 

1492 - 1876 . 

1 . — Cuba was visited by Columbus in 1492, and 
there can be but little doubt that the able Genoese, 
would have made the Spanish name respected and be¬ 
loved among the Aborginies, could he have controlled 
the Court of Spain, and the unruly spirits that repre¬ 
sented Castile and Arragon under his nominal com¬ 
mand, in the new possessions of the crown. Unfor¬ 
tunately he could not even preserve himself from un¬ 
merited outrage, and the Indians, who had no chance 
of representing their case at court, were still worse 
placed than he. 

2 , — The Island of Cuba was colonized in 1511, 
and with few intervals of comparative repose for the 
people, the Spanish crown has retained possession 
almost ever since that date. Here, as well as else¬ 
where, the Indians suffered under the rule of Spain. 
Hernando, the governor, was so cruel in his adminis- 

[ tration that within forty years the Indian race had be¬ 
come extinct. Spain was not allowed peace from 
[ without, in the prosecution of its domestic tyranny, as 
we find that in 1534, and again twenty years later, 
Havana was destroyed by the French, but on each oc¬ 
casion rebuilt, and in 1584 strongly fortified. That 
fact did not prevent its capture by the Dutch in 1624, 
who unfortunately did not obtain possession, in the in¬ 
terests of humanity. Fi Hi busters and Buccaneers 

made havoc in the island during the latter half of the 
seventeenth century, Puerto Principe being quite de¬ 
stroyed in 1688, but the city rose again, the plunder¬ 
ers were suppressed and the fortunes of Spain were once 
more in the ascendant. The English seized Havana in 
1762, but restored it to Spain in the following year, 
taking Florida in exchange. The monopoly of tobac¬ 
co established by Spain in 1717, rendered it necessary 



542 


CUBA. 


for Other governments to pursue a like policy with their 
colonies. 

3 . — Freer intercourse with Spain, but with Spain 
only, was allowed to Cuba after 1763, and an increased 
measure of prosperity resulted, but it was cursed with 
the stain of the slave trade, as Cuba became the depot 
for the traffic in humanity for all Central America. 
The trade in slaves was freed from all former restric¬ 
tions in 1789, and from that year to 1820, the average 
importation of slaves to Cuba per annum, was 7.000. 
For the next twenty-one years the average was 18,000. 
The trade was placed under restrictions after 1841, 
and in 1845 it was expressly forbidden. That order 
was made absolute by the vigilance of Captain Gen¬ 
eral Concha during two years, but after that lapse of 
time it became understood by Spanish officials that the 
order was not in earnest; it was a concession to civiliz¬ 
ation in outward appearances, not intended for every 
day wear. So the slave trade revived in Cuba after 
the year 1847. 

4 . — Cuba enjoyed an era of commercial prosperity 
after the first quarter of the nineteenth centuiy, for 
three reasons : Ilayti had fallen into trouble, and 
civil wars distracted attention from business, so a rival 
was practically removed ; the tobacco monopohq which 
confined all dealings to Spanish ports, was annulled in 
1816, and the benefit speedily followed ; and thirdly, 
general freedom of trade was permitted in and after 
the year 1818. There were insurrections of the ne¬ 
groes in the year 1844, and again in 1848, besides 
many minor outbreaks, but such risings were repres¬ 
sed with great rigor, and it is believed that the war of 
1848 cost 10,000 negroes their lives. The slave traffic 
could not have been all profit, when from a slave own¬ 
er’s point of view, so much valuable property had to 
be destroyed in order to prevent all the rest from 
emerging into human conditions. 

5. — Cuba is an object of very great interest to the 
United States, as may well appear from' the fact that 


CUBA. 


543 


President Polk authorized an offer to Spain of $100,- 
000,000 for the island. The government of Madrid, 
always in want of money, promptly rejected the pro¬ 
position. The purchase of Florida from Spain in¬ 
creased the value of Cuba. Revolutions were unsuc¬ 
cessfully attempted in 1849, and again in 1850, by 
Col. Narcisso Lopez. The attempt was repeated in 
1851, but the main result was the execution of the 
leaders Lopez and Crittenden, as the Cubans would 
not rise when the opportunity was offered to break the 
3 ^oke of Spain. There was a proposition in 1850 to 
guaranty Cuba to Spain, but America, under Presi¬ 
dent Fillmore, declined to become a party to the treaty, 
although strongly urged by the governments of Eng¬ 
land and France. 

6. — Hcstilities came very near breaking out be¬ 
tween the United States and Spain soon after that 
event, in consequence of the conduct of a Spanish 
Man-of-War in the case of the steamer Black Warrior, 
as Spain, although one of the weakest Monarchies in 
in Europe, is the most insolent by far. The attitude 
assumed by the United States intimidated the Spanish 
court and proper reparation was eventually made and 
for a time the danger was tided over; still there has 
never ceased to be an uneasy feeling in Spain on the 
Cuban difficulty in view of her own danger, and the 
certainty that under similar circumstances old Spain 
would long since have proceeded to annextion. Three 
Ambassadors of the United States at European Courts, 
of course moved by their instructions in 1854, signed 
the manifesto of Ostend which claimed for their gov¬ 
ernment the right to take possession of Cuba by force 
of arms in the event of Spain persistently refusing to 
cede the country by purchase. That manifesto caused 
a great commotion at the time, and subsequent pro¬ 
ceedings gave to it a still greater national signifiicance 
when one of the signers became President of the 
United States. The Ambassadors were Mason, Soule, 
and Buchanan, whose election followed soon after the 
declaration had become the world’s talk. 


544 


CUBA. 


7. — The national expression whicli was feared by 
Spain did not lead to any overt act on the part of the 
United States, probably because Buchanan’s adminis¬ 
tration was closely and jealously watched by the anti¬ 
slavery party with a very reasonable determination 
that additional slave territory should not be added to 
the Union; but the words and documents of states¬ 
men on the pro-slavery and democratic side continu¬ 
ally pointed to the acquisition of Cuba as one of the 
cherished projects of that organization for slave pur¬ 
poses. 

8. — The civil war in the United States, which 
may be said to have commenced before Buchanan left 
office, relieved Spain from fears in that quarter for 
several years, but in 1868, Queen Isabella was com¬ 
pelled to seek refuge in France, in consequence of the 
revolution led by Generals Prim and Serrano, and that 
event became the inciting cause of an insurrection in 
Cuba. The friends of independence on that island 
commenced a revolution in the month following the 
flight of the Queen in September, 1868, and from that 
time to the present there have been hostilities with¬ 
out ceasing. 

9 . — The first act was an address to the Cubans by 
Manuel Carlos Cespedes, on the 10th of October, 

1868, proclaiming Cuba a republic, independent of 
Spain. The troops came into collision with the in¬ 
surgents on the 20th of the same month at Les Tunas, 
and immediately afterwards a provisional government 
was appointed at Bayamo, from which a promise was 
obtained that slavery should be abolished, without de¬ 
lay. Cespedes was nominated President of the Cuban 
Republic by a Constitutional Assembly, in April, 

1869, and the first acts of that body after organization 
consisted of the total abolition of slavery, and the an¬ 
nulment of every exclusive privilege theretofore en¬ 
joyed by the Catholic Church. Spain was for some 
time involved in a search for a King, and during that 
time the young republic was comparatively but not 
actually at rest. 


CUBA. 


545 


10. —The administration of Prim and Serrano did not 
loose their hold upon Cuba, as to have done so would 
have offended the pride of the Cortes, and probably 
the same motive controlled King Amadeus during his 
brief reign. The accession of Alfonso, after Amadeus 
had resigned and Serrano had run his career as ruler, 
saw the same policy in force, and so united were all 
parties in the matter of Cuban oppression, that a prop- 
ositicm was made on behalf of Don Carlos, during the 
war of succession, that all prisoners taken on either 
side should be sent to Cuba to unite in suppressing 
the rebellion, which was peculiarly odious in the fact 
of its defying Dome as well as Madrid. War with 

• Cuba was more vigorously prosecuted after 1871. 

11. —The accession of Alfonso XII, son of Queen 
Isabella, in 1875, only intensified the action of Spain 
against Cuban liberties, in the name of the monarchy 
and religion ; and the war was conducted with rage 
and vigor on both sides, but without such power as to 
produce decisive results. Kecognition of Cuban Inde¬ 
pendence by the United States has long been sought 
by the patriots, and denied by the present administra¬ 
tion, probably because it would appear to be dictated 
by a desire for territorial aggrandizement, should the 
solicited concession be made, as of course there could 
be no doubt as to the outcome of a war with Spain in 
the event of such hostilities commencing. The Vir- 
ginius diflficulty which arose soon after the accession 
of Alfonso, and in which the cruel and arbitrary poli¬ 
cy of Spain in Cuba involved many American and 
English subjects, gave great hope to the patriots, as 
Spain obstinately refused to make reparation, so great 
was the bigotry of the populace that the government 
dared not grant what at the same time it dared not re¬ 
fuse. The demands of England and America were at 
length, and very reluctantly conceded, so that the as¬ 
pirations of Cuba were relegated to a distant day. On 
both sides there have been atrocious cruelties; but it 
.s clear that Spain cannot govern Cuba, and if there 

35 


546 


CUBA. 


was a court of appeal among nations, such as our 
courts of justice are among individuals, Madrid would 
certainly be bound over to keep the peaee. 

12 . — The Cubans fight well, and they persist in 
their struggle, having sought the intervention of the 
United States repeatedly, but President Grant, while 
speaking oracularly on many occasions, has not gone 
beyond offers of mediation in actual deed. Captain 
General Dulce was compelled to return to Spain in 
consequence of the volunteer force commanded by 
him having defied his authority. Caballero de Podas, 
the next Captain General was almost as unsuccessful 
with the rebels as Dulce had been with his own men, 
and the Count de Valmaseda cannot end the conflict. 
If there was any certainty that the Cubans knew how 
to govern themselves, it would be the duty of civil¬ 
ized nations to interfere in their behalf, but there is 
good reason for believing that, as soon as Spanish 
troops are withdrawn, unless some strong nation under¬ 
takes to suppress revolt, the contending factions among 
themselves will carry on the work of depletion until 
the nascent nation can bleed no more. 

13 . — Cuba is separated by the Bahama Channel 
from Florida, from which it is distant only 130 miles, 
Hayti being about 45 miles east of Cuba. The island 
is 800 miles long, and varies in breadth from 25 miles 
to 130, its area being 45,883 square miles. There are 
very good harbors at Havana and Matanzas, besides 
many other very fair ports of refuge. The highest 
mountain peak is Pico Turquinos, 7,750 feet above 
the sea, and the chain of mountains traverses the length 
of the island. There are no navigable rivers, the 
streams being small, but lagoons and swampy land 
alternate with savannahs of great fertility, from the 
mountains’ base towards the Caribbean Sea. There 
are copper mines in the mountains, and the mineral 
resources include coal, silver, marble, iron, limestone, 
granite and gneiss. 

14 . — The mean temperature of the whole year on 


CUBA. 


547 


the coast is about 78° Fahrenheit, and in summer 88° 
is about the maximum, so that there are no great 
variations obtainable without recourse to the moun¬ 
tains. Earthquakes frequently occur. Yegetation is 
luxuriant, and on the highlands there are extensive 
forests of fustic, ebony, mahogany and cedar. Fruits, 
such as the pineapple, orange, lemon, melon and 
banana, flourish. Sugar, cotton, rice, coffee, maize, 
indigo and tobacco are produced, but sugar and its 
product, rum, are the chief exports. Among the prin¬ 
cipal manufactures and works produced in the country, 
are tobacco and cigars, the bleaching of wax, making 
sugar, molasses and rum, and handling the smaller 
staples of the island. Cattle have increased until 
there are about 1,500,000 head on the island. There 
are about 400 miles of railroad in operation. There 
are two departments under the Captain General with 
subordinate governors and lieutenants. The popula¬ 
tion of the island is about 1,500,000, of which number 
one-fourth are slaves, and about one-eighth free colored, 
the balance being of European descent or birth. The 
capital of the island is Havana, the established religion 
Catholic. 

15. — Havana is the most important city in the* 
West India Islands, and as a mart of commerce, it. 
ranks among the ports of the world. It stands on an 
inlet of the Gulf of Mexico, on the northern shore of 
Cuba. There is hardly a finer harbor to be found,. 
and the narrow passage by which it is entered is 
strongly fortified for nearly half a mile before opening 
into the capacious and secure basin which would hold 
one thousand ships of the line secure against any 
troubles except war or earthquake. Wharf accom¬ 
modations are" ample and complete, and there is also 
a fine dry dock. The city has endured great vicissi¬ 
tudes of fortune and changed hands several times, but 
it is essentially Spanish. The old streets are narrow 
and dirty, the more modern, where foreign residents 
abound, being more handsome and more salubrious, 



548 


CUBA. 


with broad drives lined with palm trees. The old 
houses are low, without glazed windows, having 
wooden blinds and iron shutters. The roofs are flat 
and the houses gaudily painted. The opera house is 
one of the largest in the world, the cathedral contains 
the dust of Columbus, procured from San Domingo in 
1706, and the palace of the Governor General has apart¬ 
ments for the transaction of all government business. 
The plazas and promenades of Havana are its chief glory, 
including the Plaza de Arms, the Parque de Isabel, the 
Alameda de Paula and the Paseo de 'lacon with nu¬ 
merous others of less repute. The supply of water is 
excellent, being brought seven miles through an aque¬ 
duct from the Chonera, and there are over fifty public 
fountains without reckoning similar works of smaller 
dimensions with which the atmosphere is gratefully 
cooled in private grounds and parks. There is a fine 
university, a botanical garden and numerous charit- ^ 
able asylums. The educational arrangements are de¬ 
fective, but science and the school are represented. 

16 . — Manufactures do not flourish in Cuba, but 
the city of Havana takes the lead in that respect as 
well as in commercial matters, and its lines of steamers 
communicate with all parts of the world; besides 
which, lines of cable connect the city with Key West 
in Florida, Aspinwall in Panama, and Kingston in 
Jamaica. The whole island can be reached by lines 
of railroad radiating from Havana, fl’obacco is its | 
staple manufacture and export, the figures for 1872 i 
having exhibited shipments of 18,210,800 lbs. of leaf 
tobacco, 229,087,545 lbs. of cigars and 19,344,707 
packages of cigarettes. Sugar comes next among ex- j 
ports, following which are rum and molasses, witli the 
other products already named. The commerce of 
Havana embraces one-half of the aggregate exports of 
the island, and three-fourths of all the imports; and' 
the aggregate production is over $126 000,000. Of 
the 1,669 ships that entered Havana in 1869, 721 were 
from this country. The university at Havana has 




OTHER SPANISH POSSESSIONS. 


549 


400 students, but there is no toleration in religious 
matters except in regard to foreign residents. 

OTHER SPANISH POSSESSIONS. 

PORTO RICO. 

1493-lH7(i. 

1 . — Columbus discovered Porto Rico in 1493, and 
returned to Spain in 1496. There are no special fea¬ 
tures in connection with the history of Porto Rico 
which would justify a recapitulation of oppressions, 
exactions and wrongs that gradually crushed the native 
race into the earth, and led the way toward negro 
slavery very early in the sixteenth century. The cap¬ 
ital of the colony is San Juan de Porto Rico, and it 
contains a population of 18,000 persons, who, with the 
remainder of the island, aggregating about 620,000 
souls, are governed by the Church and the military 
governors sent from Spain, without any regard to the 
; wants and desires of the community. The area of 
\ Porto Rico, with some small neighboring islands, com¬ 
prises 3,596 square miles, and the annual expenditure 
j ranges near $3,900,000. Its exports, which consist of 
sugar, molasses, tobacco, wax, honey, coffee, rum, cot¬ 
ton and hides, sufficiently attest the sameness of soil, 
climate and condition with-Cuba; but Porto Rico is 
not harassed with intestine troubles to the same extent. 
The imports are found to average nearly $11,000,000 
per annum, and the exports about $5,500,000. Porto 
Rico is one of the islands of the Greater Antilles, and 
is the fourth in magnitude, having a mountain chain 
in the center of the island, and being subject to earth¬ 
quakes and hurricanes of terrible power. Vegetation 
in the lowlands is prolific, and there are forests of very 
valuable timber, such as can seldom be found except 
in the torrid zone. 

2. — The Virgin Islands are, in part, held by Spain, 
but they are so small that they can hardly be said to 
Lave a history, as the larger of the group have been 



550 


BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 


held by Great Britain for many years. The whole 
continent of America, with all the islands, was at one 
time formally granted to the court of Spain by the 
Pope, who had no kind of right to dispose of property 
that was not his own, and which he had never seen ; 
but all that now remains to Spain has been summed 
up in a remarkably small compass. 

BEITISH POSSESSIONS. 

JAMAICA. 

1494 - 1876 . 

1 , — Columbus discovered Jamaica in 1494, on the 
8d of May, and the first Spanish settlement dates from 
1509, from which time until 1655, Spain oppressed the 
Indians as long as there were Indians to torture and 
destroy. When that era passed away, there were ne¬ 
groes to be hunted, and they could oppress each other, 
so that in 1655, when Cromwell was Lord Protector of 
England, an expedition under Admiral Penn, father 
of the great founder of Pennsylvania, sent to capture 
Hispaniola, or Hayti, returned, having failed disgrace¬ 
fully in the greater purpose, but captured Jamaica. 
The treaty of Madrid, in 1670, confirmed this posses¬ 
sion to England, and in consequence, the island has 
been saved from much suffering, although slavery, 
wLich was established on the island before the days of 
Cromwell, continued as one of the institutions until 
the year 1883, when emancipation was enforced. 

2. —The odious slave trade continued in full force 
until 1807, when the British government abolished 
the traffic; but many years of agitation were required 
before the nation was prepared to pay the price of 
emancipation in 1833 ; and the reform was mainly due 
to the labors of Clarkson and Wilberforce cooperating 
with the Society of Friends generally. The immedi¬ 
ate consequences of that act were disastrous in the ex¬ 
treme, as the sugar plantations were left without labor, 
and that branch of industry was almost ruined. In 


BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 


551 


the year 1838, the planters formed an association, com¬ 
bining to reduce wages to the lowest point, and at the 
sanie time to raise the rentals paid by the laborers, 
until there was no margin left to sustain life. The 
negroes, driven to desperation by the shameful course 
pursued by their masters, fled from the plantations on 
which they had been employed, and took refuge in the 
mountains, many acts of spoliation which occurred 
about the same time, being charged to their account, 
and perhaps with good reason. Chinese workmen were 
then imported to take their place, but the change was 
not satisfactory to their employers; still, in conse¬ 
quence of the protection afforded to the planters in 
Jamaica by the tariff laws of England, the sugar trade 
continued to pay until the year 1846, when free trade 
came into operation. 

3. — Cuba and Brazil, emplojdng slave labor in the 
growth of coffee and sugar cane and the manufacture 
of sugar, were then able to beat Jamaica out of the 
English market, and absolute ruin fell upon all classes 
on that island, the depths of misery being sounded 
when a series of poor harvests, partly the results of 
careless training, supervened. Maddened by the evil 
outcome of all their efforts, the races began to make 
war upon each other, and the whole power of the Eng¬ 
lish government was used by the Captain-General of 
Jamaica, Edward John Eyre, to suppress the tumult. 
Gov. Eyre, whose record until that time had been 
good, was appointed in 1862, and had become thor¬ 
oughly ideniitied with the planters before the outbreak 
in 1865. His conduct was at once treacherous and 
brutal, as exemplified in the capture, trial by court 
martial, and execution of Gordon, one of the leaders of 
the colored race ; and it provoked so much comment 
in the English press, that Eyre was censured by the 
government and removed from his position. Hot con¬ 
tent with the measure of punishment, John Stuart 
Mill and other public men united to bring the ex-Gov- 
ernor before the courts to be tried for murder ; but 


552 


BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 


notwithstanding every effort possible, the attempt 
failed, although it ought to have suceeeded. 

4. — The severities thus exerted had the effeet of 
subduing the outbreak, and the sympathy excited 
among philanthropists and merchants procured ameli¬ 
oration of the general condition. Missions which were 
formerly almost inoperative, and which aimed at the 
education of the negroes, have procured very beneficial 
changes, and the new generation of free citizens, edu¬ 
cated in free schools, meets on much better terms the 
new generation of planters, who can produce all the 
growths possible on their estates cheaper and better 
than their predecessors. The government of Jamaica 
consists of a Governor or Captain-General, appointed 
by the English Ministry, and an Assembly of 47 mem¬ 
bers chosen by popular suffrage. The capital of the 
colony is Kingston. 

5. — The island, one of the Great Antilles, lies off 
the Bay of Honduras, between the Gulf of Mexico 
and the Caribbean Sea, 90 miles south of Cuba, its 
area being 4,473 square miles, and its population 
506,154; the whites only aggregating 13,101, the mu- 
lattoes 101,346, and the negroes 391,707. The Blue 
Mountains traverse Jamaica east and west, being near¬ 
ly 8,000 feet above the sea, sloping gently to the 
north, but towards the south forming precipitous cliffs 
along the shore. There is only one river navigable, 
the Black River, but there are numerous smaller 
streams which flow with great rapidity. The scenery 
is very beautiful in all parts of the island, the moun¬ 
tains being covered with pimento groves and forests. 
The sugar plantations are mainly in the plains to the 
southeast. The climate is hot and unhealthy, yellow 
fever being a yearly visitor. There are two rainy sea¬ 
sons, from September to October, and from the end of 
March to the beginning of May. Terrific storms usu¬ 
ally precede the rainy seasons, and the word hurri¬ 
canes is said to be due to the winds in the Antilles. 
Earthquakes have been very destructive, as for in- 


BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 


553 


; Stance in 1692 and in 1780. It is claimed that a beau¬ 
tiful climate can be found at an elevation of 1,500 feet 
from the sea, and many of the wealthy planters choose 
' to reside on the mountain ledges for health sake. 

. Coffee can be cultivated at 5,000 feet above the sea, 
but sugar, indigo and tropical plants generally flour- 
I ish in the valleys. 

1 6. — The forests are very valuable, containing ma- 

' hogany, cedar and other woods of that class; bread 

fruit trees abound, and the palms most common are 
the cocoanut tree and the cabbage palm. European 
domesticated animals thrive. The productiveness of 
Jamaica has fallen off materially since slavery was 
abolished. In 18Q5 there were i50,852 hogsheads of 
sugar, 53,950 puncheons of rum and 24,137,393 
pounds of coffee produced on the island, and in 1850 
toe figures showed a decrease to 30,459 hogshead of 
sugar, 15,992 puncheons of rum and 7,095,623 pounds 
of coffee. The increase since that time has been par¬ 
tial, and many years must elapse under an entirely 
new system before the old productiveness will be ex¬ 
celled. Imports are now in excess of exports, and 
food is largely procured from other countries for the 
population. 

7. — Kingston, the capital of Jamaica, stands on 
the southern coast, twelve miles from Spanish Town, 
which was the capital at one time. The city stands 
on a plain, at the base of the Blue Mountains, and is 
surrounded by plantations, gardens and villas, pre¬ 
senting a very beautiful appearance, but the situation 
is hot and unhealthy in spite of regular breezes which 
alternate from land and sea, morning and evening. 
There are marshes near the city, and yellow fever is a 
frequent visitor. There is no special architectural 
elegance in Kingston, but the city is well built, and a 
fine aqueduct brings good drinking water for the in¬ 
habitants. The fortifications are well maintained and 
formidable, but the main importance of the situation 
is due to its connection with the trade of Central 




554 


BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 


America. In the year 1869-70 the exports from 
Kingston were $6,315,813, and the imports $6,600,416. 
The principal exports are rum, sugar, tobacco and dye- 
woods. The population of the city is over 35,000. 
St. Jago de la Yega is another important place, but 
Kingston has the lead in every way. The school 
system on the island is good, and toleration for all 
religions is the rule. 

BARBADOES. 

This island is named so because it is said that when 
the Spaniards were approaching the island, they saw a 
plant growing on the rocks which resembled the 
human beard or barb. It is the easternmost of the 
Caribbean group, and belongs to the British. The 
island has an area of 166 square miles, being twenty- 
one miles long by fourteen wide, and is almost encir¬ 
cled by coral reefs, dangerous to vessels. The greatest 
altitude of the island is 1,140 feet, and destructive 
storms frequently occur. Since slavery was abolished, 
Barbadoes has increased in population and prosperity. 
The soil produces sugar, cotton, arrowroot, and other 
growths of a similar kind in abundance. The popula¬ 
tion, in 1871, was 162,042, and, in the previous year, 
the imports were $5,350,000, the exports being $4,865,- 
000. Bridgetown is the capital, and it stands on the 
western coast, extending along the northern side of 
Carlisle Bay, which forms a good roadstead. The 
Bishop of Barbadoes and the Governor of the Wind¬ 
ward Islands reside in Bridgetown, where there is also 
an arsenal and a barrack. The population of Bridge¬ 
town numbers about 25,000 souls. 

ANTIGUA 

Is the most important of the Leeward group of islands 
and is held by the British. Its area is only eighty-nine 
square miles, and it was first settled in 1632. The 
island is twenty-two miles south of Barbuda, and its 


BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 


555 


capital is St. Johns. The surface is considerably di¬ 
versified, small as the island is, and the climate is 
healthy and dry. There is a very fine and fertile soil 
in the interior, and the chief exports are sugar, rum 
a,nd molasses, with some fruits. The population comes 
very near to 40,000, and in the year 1870, the exports 
amounted to $1,070,060, the imports for the same year 
only aggregating a total of $820,890, so that there 
remained a considerable balance in favor of the frugal 
inhabitants. 


BERMUDA ISLANDS 

Were discovered by Juan Bermudez in 1522, are of 
value because of the position which they occupy — 
624 miles from Cape Hatteras, between the West In¬ 
dies and other parts of British America. There are 
nearly 400 isles in all within an area of nineteen miles 
by six, and the entire surface is estimated at twenty- 
four square miles. Those islands are mentioned by 
Shakspere as “The still vext Bermoothes.” Coral 
reefs almost inclose the groups. The climate is mild 
and delightful and the islands are always green. 
Potatoes, onions and arrowroot are the chief products. 
The largest island is Bermuda, fifteen miles long, on 
which is the capital of the group, Hamilton. St. 
George’s Isle, three and one-kalf miles long, has a fine 
harbor, and is strongly defended. There are intricate 
and very narrow channels between the islands, on 
which there are no streams, and fresh water is scarce. 
There is a great deal of ship building carried on on 
those islands. The population of the whole group is 
about 14,000. Between December and March the 
temperature ranges at about 66°. The coral reefs here 
found are the only reefs of the kind known of in the 
Central Atlantic. 


DOMINICA. 

Sunday Island was discovered by Columbus, on 
Sunday, Hov. 3, 1493, and it lies 22 miles north of 



556 


BRITISH POSSESSION’S. 


Martinique. The area is 291 square miles, and it is 
29 miles long. The highest point is 5,314 feet above 
the sea, and the island is evidently of volcanic origin; 
it is the highest land in the Lesser Antilles. The val¬ 
leys are very fertile. France ceded the island to 
Great Britain in 1763. The staple products are coffee, 
sugar, rum, tobacco, cocoa, copper ore and timber. 
The abolition of slavery, which nearly ruined Jamaica, 
increased the prosperity of this and many other of the 
small West Indian possessions of Great Britain. In 
1870, the population numbered 28,517, and the total 
value of imports was found to be $301,390. The ton¬ 
nage of vessels entered and cleared, exclusive of 
coasters, was 19,160 ; the public debt was $36,150; 
the revenue for the year amounted to $78,605, and the 
expenditures to $76,240, so that there was a surplus of 
$2,365, a condition of affairs which might be envied 
by many states of far greater magnitude. 

GRENADA, THE GRENADINES, Etc. 

Grenada is an island 21 miles long, and 12 broad, 
with an area of 133 square miles, and having a popu¬ 
lation of 37,684 souls. It is a British colony, and its 
chief towns are St. George and St. Mark. The island 
is mountainous, and evidently due to volcanic action ; 
the highest peaks rise 3,000 feet above the sea. The 
country is very beautiful and fertile, and the chief 
products are cotton and sugar. The Grenadines 
stretch from Grenada to St. Vincent, and the largest 
of the group are Cariacon and Beguia. The popula¬ 
tion of the whole falls under 3,500. 

Barbuda stands 22 miles north of Antigua, and 
has an area of 75 square miles. It is of coral forma¬ 
tion, and has no harbor. There are fine forests on the 
island. The population is very nearly 1,000. 

Anguilla, or Snake Island, is four miles north of 
St. Martin, and has an area of 34 square miles. The 
island is low, and covered with forests. ^The staple 


BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 


557 


products are sugar, tobacco and cotton, and the popu¬ 
lation is about 8,500 souls. This is one of the Lee¬ 
ward Islands or Lesser Antilles. 

The other islands held by Great Britain, except the 
Bahamas, are Nevis, Montserrat, St. Christopher, St. 
Lucia, St. Vincent, Tobago, Trinidad and three of the 
Virgin Islands, concerning which it may be generally 
stated that they have no particularities of history 
worthy of being named. 

THE BAHAMAS. 

!• — The Bahama Islands, or Lucayos, lie northeast 
of Cuba in the Atlantic, being separated from Cuba 
by the old Bahama channel. There are twelve islands, 
and altogether 3,060 isles and islets, of various denom¬ 
inations, extending like a chain for about 700 miles. 
The general characteristic of the Bahamas is narrow¬ 
ness, length and low altitude. The climate in winter 
is very mild and healthful. The soil produces maize, 
cotton, oranges, pineapples and other such vegetables 
and fruits. The area is estimated variously from 
8,012 to 5,128 square miles, and the capital is Nassau, 
in New Providence. The chief islands are Great 
Abaco—Little Abaco is an islet—Eleuthera, New Prov¬ 
idence, Andros, San Salvador, Exuma, Great and Lit¬ 
tle, Long Island, Crooked Island, Inagua and Caicos. 
One of the largest is Great Abaco, which is 80 miles 
long, and contains 96 square miles, with Carleton for 
its principal settlement. Little Abaco lies west of the 
northern part of its larger namesake. 

2. —Eleuthera is about 50 miles northeast of New 
Providence, and is 80 miles long by 10 wide in some 
parts. The land is fertile, producing pineapples, or¬ 
anges and cascarilla bark, as well as minor vegetables. 
San Salvador, or Cat Island, was probably the first 
land sighted by Columbus in 1492. Exuma has a fine 
harbor, probably the best in the group. The island is 
30 miles long by three wide, and is crossed by the 


558 


FRENCH POSSESSIONS. 


tropic of Cancer, Much salt is exported from Great 
and Little Exuma. Crooked Island has an area of 
160 square miles, and the main export is salt. The 
Bahamas seem to be videttes, posted far beyond the 
coast of the continent, to give warning. 

FRENCH POSSESSIONS. 

MARTINIQUE, GUADELOUPE, Etc. 

1 . — The island of Martinique is one of the few 
possessions retained by France in the West Indies, al¬ 
though many places have been taken and temporarily 
held by that nation. The whole area now held by 
France in this region embraces 1,016 square miles and 
has an aggregate population of about 300,000 souls. 
The government is administered by officers despatched 
for the purpose from France, and the settlements are 
moderately prosperous. The capital of Martinique is 
Fort Royal, on the west side of the island, on a bay of 
the same name. Martinique is famous in history, and 
has been the scene of many a warlike adventure. 
Fort Royal is the residence of the Governor of Mar¬ 
tinique, and it is strongly fortified, the population of 
the city being about 12,000. 

2. —Guadeloupe is one of the lesser Antilles, and 
with it are grouped Desirade, Marie Galante and St. 
Martin, with yet smaller neighboring islets, in one ad¬ 
ministration. The area of the whole territory is esti¬ 
mated at 534 square miles, and the population is about 
160,000. Salt River divides Guadeloupe into two 
parts, but the strait is very narrow. Guadeloupe 
proper, the western part, is clearly of volcanic birth, 
and its highest peak, La Souffriere^ is an active volcano. 
The peak is 5,108 feet high. Grand Terre, the eastern 
division, is a coralline formation and is consequently 
low and flat. The soil of Guadeloupe is fertile, and 
its chief exports are sugar, rum, coffee, dye stuffs, cab¬ 
inet woods and tobacco. The capital of the settle- 


DANISH AND DUTCH POSSESSIONS. 550 

nient is Basse Terre, so named from its position on the 
“low land.” Basse Terre . is a seaport on the south¬ 
west coast of Gruadeloupe. There is no harbor in the 
island, bi>t the traffic is not very great. The popula¬ 
tion of the capital is about 10,000, and the city has a 
fine Botanic garden. The Bishop of Guadeloupe re¬ 
sides at Basse Terre, and society is amiable and re¬ 
fined. 


DANISH POSSESSIONS. 

Denmark possesses Greenland, Iceland and the 
Faroe Isles, but to notice those colonies would extend 
the range of our little book beyond the limits already 
fixed. In the West Indies, Denmark holds Santa 
Cruz, St. Thomas and St. John, administering the af¬ 
fairs of her small possessions with moderation and 
wisdom, striving to procure the administration of jus¬ 
tice, and to diffuse education. The area held by Den¬ 
mark only aggregates 122 square miles, and the popu¬ 
lation is 87,821. Her colonies altogether aggregate 
87,258 square miles, with a population of 127,401. 

DUTCH POSSESSIONS. 

The Dutch West Indian Colonies and possessions 
are Curacoa, Soba, St. Euistache, St. Martin, Bonaire 
and Arnba which aggregate an area of 400 square 
miles, and contain about 86,000 inhabitants. The 
main exports are sugar, coffee, cotton, cocoa, coch¬ 
ineal, sea salt, rum and molasses. The colonies are 
very peaceful and prosperous. Curacoa stands in a 
group of the same name, and lies off the north coast 
of Venezuala, and has an area of 164 square miles. 
The government of the island, more immediately is 
by a Stadtholder and Council, holding the seat of ad¬ 
ministration at Willemstadt. The chief exports from 
Curacoa are salt and cochineal. The population is 
about 28,000. The other islands form parts of the 


560 


SWEDISH TEREITORY. 


same groups, the Leeward or North Caribbean Islands 
differing in their geographical features, but not in their 
social characteristics, nor largely in their products 
from Curacoa. 


Sweden has only eight square miles of territory in 
the West Indies, but upon that limited area of St. 
Bartholmew, she has congregated 2,898 people, who 
govern themselves in peace, and enjoy a fair measure 
of prosperity. This is one of the smallest of the 
Leeward Islands, and its products answer the general 
characteristics already mentioned. 


THE END. 




CONTENTS 


NORTH AMERICA. 

Extent, . . - - . 

Boundaries,. 

Area,. 

Political Divisions, - - - 

UNITED STATES. 

I. Boundaries. 

Extent,. 

Boundaries, - - - - - 

Area, ...... 

II. Surface. 

Eastern Area or Belt, 

Western Kegion, - - - 

Mississippi valley, . . - 

III. Rivers and Lakes. 
Rivers emptying into Atlantic - 
Itivers emptying into Pacitic, - 
Rivers emptying into Gulf of 
Mexico, . - - - - 

IV. Climate and Vegetation 

General Remarks, ... 
Eastern Section — Comparisons, 
Oceanic Currents, 

Zone of the Variable Winds, 

Zone of the Trade Winds, 
Deflected Trade Winds, 

Rainfall on Sea-board, 

Indigenous Vegetation in East, 
Prairie Scenery, - - - - 

VV'estern Section— Elevation - 
Mountain Influences, 

Indigenous Vegetation of West, 
Climate of the Ear VV'est, . 

The Winds and Rains of the 
West,. 

V. Ropulation. 

Population by Nativities, 

Causes for Progress in Popula¬ 
tion, 

Foreign Population, - - - 

Characteristics of, . - - 

Volume of Immigration, 
Comparative Contributions to 
United States Population, - 
Population by States, 

Compared by States, - 

36 


Gain per cent, - - - . 37 

Gains by a Mixture of Races, 38 
Colored Population, - - - 39 

Japanese Population in the 
United States, - ... 40 

Chinese Population in the 
United States, - - - - 40 

Origins of Americans, - - 40 

The Semitic Element, - - 40 

Anglo Saxon or English, - - 41 

German Element, - . . 41 

The Celtic Element, - - - 41 

French and Spanish Elements, 42 
Excess of Births over Deaths, 43 

VI. Industrie.*. 

Number of Persons Employed 

in any Pursuit, - - - - 43 

Number of Persons not Em¬ 
ployed in any Pursuit, - - 44 

Number Engaged in Agriculture, 44 
Number Engaged in Professions, 45 
Number Engaged in Trade and 
Transportation, ... 45 

Number Engaged in Manufac¬ 
turing, .45 

VII. Education. 

General Remarks, - - . 45 

Early Education in New England, 46 
Characteristics of United States 
Common Schools, - - - 47 

Colleges and Universities, - 48 

Harvard College, - - - 49 

Yale College, .49 

Columbia College, - - - 50 

Agricultural Colleges and Scien¬ 
tific Schools, - - - - 50 

Military Schools, - - - 51 

Impediments to Education in 

Certain Sections, - - - 52 

Areas of Illiteracy, - - - 53 

The Press, Books, etc,, - - 54 

VIII. Government. 

General Remarks, - - - 56 

Articles of Confederation, - 57 

Philadelphia Convention, - 57 

The Constitution, - - - 58 

Legislative Branch, - - - 58 

Powers of Congress, - - - 59 

The Senate,.60 

House of Representatives, - 61 


5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

6 

5 

7 

9 

15 

16 

18 

24 

25 

26 

26 

26 

27 

27 

27 

28 

28 

29 

29 

30 

31 

31 

32 

32 

22 

:34 

34 

34 

36 

37 








562 


CONTEXTS. 


The Judicial Branch, 

The Executive, - - . - 

Powers and Duties of the Pres¬ 
ident, . 

Department of State, - - - 

Diplomatic Service, ... 
Treasury Department, 
Subordinate Chiefs, ... 
Customs, . . . . . 

Mints,. 

Coast Surveys, . . - - 

Finances of United States, 
National Debt, . . . - 

Department of Interior, 

General Land Office, - - - 

Commissioner of Pensions, 
Indian Office, .... 
Department of Agriculture, 
Bureau of Education, 
Department of War, - . - 

Army Officers, .... 
Signal Bureau, .... 

The Army,. 

The Navy Department, 

Navy Yards and Docks, 

Post Office Department, 
Attorney General’s Department, 


61 

63 


63 

65 

66 
67 

67 

68 

70 

71 

71 

72 

73 

73 

74 

75 
77 
77 

77 

78 

79 

79 

80 
80 
81 
83 


IX. l^arly History. 

From the first act of Colonization, 1607, 
to the first Constitutional Congress, 
1774. 


Early Settlement, 

ViUGixiA — Sir Walter Ealeigh, 
Capt. Smith, the Adventurer, • 
Capt. Smith’s Book, - 
Pocahontas, ... 
Colonial Sketch of Virginia, 
Marriage of Pocahontas, - 
King James annuls the Charter 
Death of Cromwell, 

Bacon’s Eebellion, 
Massachusetts, 

Plymouth Company, - 
The Pilgrim Fathers, 

Their Hardships, 

Samoset, .... 
Starvation, .... 
The Bay Colony, 

John Endicott, 

Eelig’ous Intolerance, 

First Indian War, 

The First Union of the Coloniei 
Navigation Act, ... 

The VV'itchcraft Delusion, - 
Maine and Neav Hampshiue, 
Connecticut, . . . 

Indian Perils, ... 
The Pequod War, 

Charter, Charles II, - 
Rhohe Island, ... 
Roger Williams, ... 
Neav York, .... 
New Amsterdam, 

Despotism in Connecticut, 

New Jersey, 

Consolidation, ... 


. 

84 

1 

84 


85 

- 

85 

. 

86 

86-88 

- 

89 


89 


89 

- 

90 

. 

91 


91 

. 

91 

. 

92 

. 

92 

. 

93- 

. 

93 

- 

93 

. 

94 

- 

95 

S, 

96 


96 

- 

97 

- 

97 

- 

98 

. 

99 

. 

99 

- 

100 

. 

100 

- 

101 

. 

101 

. 

102 


103 

. 

104 


104 


Delaivare, .104 

Lord De La Warr, ... 105 
Three Lower Countries, - - 105 

Pennsylvania, ... - 106 

Brotherly Love, .... 106 
Penn’s Toleration, ... 106 
Grand Indian Treaty, - - 107 

Maryland, .108 

The Maryland Charter, - - 108 

Councillor Clayborne, - - 109 

South Carolina, ... 109 
John Locke’s Legislation, - 110 
Royal Province of South Carolina, 110 
North Carolina, ... m 


Geo. Fox, the Founder of the 


(Quakers,.Ill 

Georgia —George II, - - 111 

War under King William III, - 113 
Under tiueeii Anne, ... 113 
Treaty of Utrecht, ... 114 
War under George II, - - 114 

French and Indians, . - - 114 

George Washington, - - - 115 

Hostilities Commeneed, - - 116 

The Situation, .... 116 
Braddock’s Command, - - 117 

Forbes’ Expedition, - - 117 

Conquest of Acadia, - - - 118 

Louis Uurg, - - - - - 118 

Braddock^ Defeat, - - - 118 

Abercrombie’s Failure, - - 119 

Shirley Discouraged, - - 119 

Wolfe and Montcalm, - - 119 

Pitt’s Policy,.... - 120 

Chief Pontiac, .... 121 
Reviewing the Situation, - - 123 

Schools, etc., .... 127 


X. The Itevolntion. 

After the Continental Congress. 1774, to 
the Declaration of independence,1776. 


The Stamp Act, .... 130 
Board of Trade, - - - - 1.31 

Gen. Gage,.132 

Faneuil Hall, .... 132 
Gage in Boston, .... 133 
Congress in Philadelphia, - - 133 

First Bloodshed, .... 134 
Bunker Hill, .... - 135 

Ethan Allen, - - . - 136 

Gen. Washington, Commander, 137 
Invasion of Canada, ... 137 
Continental Successes, - - 138 

Admiral Parker, .... 133 
The Great Declaration, - - 139 


XI. The Amcricati Nation. 

From the Great Declaration, 1776, to the 
Constitution of the United States, 


1787, 

The War of Independence, - 139 
First Defeat of the Americans, - 140 

Strategy,.141 

Victory at Trenton, 1776, - - 141 

Princeton Victory, ... 142 
Brandywine Creek, ... 143 
Germantown Engagement, - 143 




CONTEXTS. 


Northern Snccesses, - - . 143 

British Beverses, - - . . 144 

Battles of Stillwater, - - . 445 

Surrender at Saratoga, - - 145 

Sulferings in Valley Forge, - 146 
Benjamin Franklin, - - - 140 

Battle of Monmouth, - - . 140 

Count D’Estaing, - . - - 147 

The Valley of Wyoming, - - 147 

Campaign of 1779, - - - 147 

Stony Point,.148 

John Paul Jones, - - - - 149 

Burgoyne’s Capture, - - - 150 

Patriot Leaders, - - . . 150 

Arnold, the Traitor, . - - 151 

Conclusion of the War, - - 152 

Fighting Cornwallis, - - - 15:3 

La Favette,. 154 

Combined Attack, - - - 154 

Surrender of Yorktown, - - 155 

After the W’ar, .... 155 
Treaty of Paris, - - - - 150 

Solving the Problem of Inde¬ 
pendence, . 157 

-YPZ. Itecent History. 

Washington and the Republic. 
The Situation, - - - - 157 

Want of Funds, - . 158 

“ Grasping the Nettle,” - - 158 

The Treasury, - . . . 1 ^ 

Trouble with Indians, - - - 1.59 

Foreign Debts, .... 159 
Mississippi Opened, - - - loO 

The French Bevolution, - - 160 

Adams and the Republic. 

John Adams, - - - - 161 

Trouble with France, - - - 161 

Jefferson and the Republic. 

Aaron Burr,.162 

The Fulton Steamboat, - - 161 

Bombarding the Bashaw, - - 162 

European \v ars, - - - - 163 

Madison and the Republic. 
Defeat of Tectimseh. ... 164 

War of 1812,.IM 

Hull's Cowardice, - - - 164 

Queenstown Heights, - - - 165 

On the Sea,.165 

Boarding the Frolic, ... 166 
The Cariipaign of 1813, - - 166 
Gen. Harrison, .... i67 
Battle of Lake Erie, ... 167 
Harrison’s Victory, - - - 168 

Loss of the Chesapeake, - - 169 

Creek Indians Defeated, - - 169 

Barbarous Tactics, ... 170 
The Campaign of 1814, - - 170 
Lake Champlain, - - - - 171 

Battle of New Orleans, - - 171 

Fruits of the Conflict, ... 172 

Monroe and the Republic. 

The Missouri Compromise, - 17:3 
Social Progress, - - - - 173 


563 


Cession of Florida, - - - 174 

Visit of La Fayette, ... 174 
Temper of the People, ... 175 
Adams and the Republic. 

Black Hawk War, .... 176 
Seminole W’ar, .... 175 
Injury to U. S. Commerce, - - 176 

Jackson and the Republic. 
Jackson’s Policy, .... 177 
Energetic Administration, - . 177 

United States Bank, ... 177 

Van Buren and the Republic. 
Kesults of Inflation, ... 173 
The Papineau Bebellion, - - 178 

Harrison and Tyler. 
Harrisons’s Death, ... 179 
Domestic Difficulties, ... 179 
The Nauvoo W'ar, . . - - 179 

Annexations and Settlements, - 180 
Folk and the Republic. 

The Mexican War, . . - 180 

Gen. Taylor’s Campaign, - - IM 

Capture of Monterey, . - - 180 

Victory at Buena Vista, - - 181 

Gen. Keat ney’s Army, - . . 181 

Gen. Scott’s Campaign at Vera 

Cruz,.182 

Cerro Gordo,.182 

Fall of Mexico, .... 132 
The W’ilmot Proviso, ... 133 
Gold in California, ... 133 

Taylor and Fillmore. 

Death of Taylor, .... 184 
Clay’s Omnibus Bill, ... 184 
Fillibustering Exploit, - - 185 

President Pierce, .... 185 

Pierce and the Republic. 

War in Kansas, .... 186 
Foreign Policy, - - - - 186 

Slavery Tactics, .... 187 
Buchanan and the Republic. 

The Dred Scott Case, ... 187 

John Brown,.187 

Slavery or Secession, ... I 88 

State Bights,.188 

Major Anderson, .... 139 


From Independence to Secession. 


Struggle to Maintain the Union, 

189 

Vermont, 

• 

• 


- 

189 

Kentucky, 

- 

- 


- 

190 

Tennessee, 

- 

- 


. 

190 

Ohio, 

- 

- 



190 

Louisiana, 

. 

. 



190 

Indiana, - 

- 

- 


. 

191 

Mississippi, 

- 



- 

191 

Illinois, - 

. 

- 


. 

191 

Alabama, 

. 

. 


. 

191 

Maine, 

. 

. 


. 

192 

Missouri, 

. 

. 


. 

192 

Arkansas, 

. 

. 


. 

192 

Michigan, 

- 

- 


- 

192 





564 


CONTENTS. 


Florida, - - - 

Texas, - - - 

Iowa, . - - 

Wisconsin, 
California, 
Minnesota, 

Oregon, - - - 

Kansas, - - - 

Comparative Study, 


The Rebellion — Lincoln. 

Lawless Designs, - - - 

Fort Sumter, - - - - 

The South, . . - . 

Beginning of the War, - 
Union Victories, - - - 

On to Kichmond, - - - 

Missouri Neutral, - - - 

Coast and Sea Incidents. 
Belligerent Rights, 

The War in 1851, - - - 

On the Tennessee, 

Pittsburg Landing, 

Results of Shiloh, - - - 

Battle of Perryville, 
luka and Corinth, 

Rosecraiis at Murfreesboro, 
Moving Against Vicksburg, 
Farragut at New Orleans, - 
Capture of Roanoke, 

Port Royal, - - - - 

Merrimac and Monitor, 
Yorktown Besieged, 

Confederate Panic, 

Stonewall Jackson, 

McClellan and Fair Oaks, - 

Gen. Lee,. 

Confederate Agressions, 

Pope on the Rapidan, - 
McClellan again in the Field, 
Emancipation of Slaves, 
McClellan Suspendea, 

Results of War, - 
Indian Difficulties, 

The War in 1863, - - - . 

Capture of Vicksburg, 
Chickamauga, . . . . 

Chattanooga, - - . - 

Affairs at Knoxville, - 
Gen. Hooker, - - . . 

Lee Looking toward New York, 
Gettysburg, - - - - . 

Admiral Dupont,' - - - 

Lieut. Gen. Grant, 

Advancing on Atlanta, 

Thomas at Nashville, - 
Sherman's March, 

The Wilderness, - - - 

Before Richmond, 

Cedar Creek, - - - . 

Red River, . . - - 

Mobile, - . - - - 

Fort Fisher, - - - - 

Results of the Campaign, - 
Sherman’s March, 

Before Richmond Again, 

Five Forks, .... 


193 

193 

193 

193 

194 

194 

195 
195 
1% 


196 

197 

198 

198 

199 
199 
300 
201 
201 
202 

203 

204 

205 
205 

205 
2U6 

206 

207 

208 
208 
208 

209 

210 
210 
211 
211 
212 

213 

214 

214 

215 

215 

216 
217 

217 

218 
218 

219 

220 
220 
221 
222 
22:1 

224 

225 

226 
226 
228 
229 

229 
2:30 

230 
230 

232 

233 
233 


Evacuation of Richmond, 


233 

Lincoln’s Death, - 

- 

- 

235 

Johnson and the Republic. 


General Remarks, 

. 


235 

Reconstruction, - 

- 

. 

236 

Congress vs. The President, 

236 

Removal of Stanton, 

- 

• 

2:38 

Impeachment, 

- 

- 

2:38 

Indian Wars, 

- 

- 

2:38 

Emperor Maximilian, 

- 

- 

2:38 

Trans-Atlantic Cable, 

- 

- 

239 

William H. Seward, 

- 

- 

239 

Grant and the Republic. 


General Remarks, 

- 

- 

240 

Union Pacific Railroad, 

. 

241 

The Fifteenth Amendment, 

241 

General Amnesty. 

- 

- 

241 

Horace Greeley’s Candidature, - 

242 

Schuyler Colfax, - 

- 

- 

243 

Oakes Ames, - 

- 

- 

244 

Henry Wilson, 

- 

- 

244 

General Increase, 

- 

- 

245 

XIII. Sketches of States. 


ALABAaiA. 



Area, ... 

• 

• 

246 

Mineral Treasures, 

. 

- 

246 

Climate. 

- 

. 

246 

Vegetation, - 

- 

- 

246 

Animals, 

- 

- 

247 

Population, - 

- 

- 

247 

Agriculture, - 

. 

• 

247 

Government, 

- 

- 

247 

ARKANSAS. 



Area, ... 

. 

- 

248 

Minerals, 

- 

. 

248 

Climate, 

- 


248 

Agricul ture, - 

. 

• 

248 

Government, 

- 

- 

249 

CALIFORNIA. 



Area, - - - 

. 


249 

Climate, 


• 

250 

Vegetation, - 

. 

• 

2.50 

Minerals, 

• 

• 

251 

Agriculture, - 

. 

- 

251 

Government, - 

- 

- 

252 

COLORADO. 



Area, - - - 

• 

• 

252 

Mining, - - - 

- 


2.53 

Climate, 

• 

• 

253 

Government, - 

- 

- 

253 

CONNECTICUT. 



Area, - - - 

. 

. 

254 

Climate, 

. 

. 

254 

Schools, - - - 

- 

- 

254 

Government, 

- 

- 

255 

DELAWARE. 



Area, - - - 

. 

• 

256 

Surface, - - - 


• 

256 

Climate, - - - 


• 

2.56 

Education, 

. 

• 

256 

Government, 

• 

- 

257 





CONTENTS. 


565 


FLORIDA. 


Area, • - . . 

• 

• 

257 

Characteristics, - 

• 

. 

257 

Cotton, - - - - 

• 

. 

258 

Government, 

- 

- 

258 

GEORGIA. 

Area, .... 

• 

• 

259 

3Iinerals, ... 

• 

. 

259 

Schools, ... 

. 


280 

Government, 

- 

- 

260 

ILLINOIS. 

Area, etc., ... 

• 

. 

260 

Schools, ... 

• 

. 

261 

Government, 

• 

- 

261 

INDIANA. 

Area, etc., ... 

. 

. 

262 

Schools, ... 

Government, 

. 

. 

262 

- 

- 

26:3 

IOWA. 

Area, .... 

• 

. 

263 

Schools, ... 


. 

26:3 

Government, 

- 

- 

264 

KANSAS, 

Area, .... 

_ 


264 

Schools. ... 

. 

. 

264 

Government, 

- 

- 

265 

KENTUCKY. 

Area, .... 

. 

. 

266 

Schools, . - - - 

. 

. 

266 

Government, 

- 

- 

266 

LOUISIANA. 

Area, .... 

. 

. 

267 

Vegetation, ... 

. 

- 

267 

Education, ... 

. 

. 

267 

Government, 

- 

- 

267 

MAINE. 

Area, .... 

. 

. 

268 

Education, ... 

. 

- 

269 

History, ... 

- 

- 

269 

Government, 

- 

- 

270 

MARYLAND. 

Area, .... 

. 

. 

270 

Minerals, ... 

. 

. 

271 

Government, 

- 

. 

271 


MISSISSIPPI. 

Area, .... 
Education, ... 

• 

• 

275 

• 

. 

275 

History, ... 

« 

. 

276 

Government, 

- 

- 

276 

MISSOURI. 

Area, .... 

• 

• 

277 

Minerals, ... 

. 

. 

277 

Schools, ... 

• 

. 

278 

Government, 

- 

- 

278 

NEBRASKA. 

Area, . . . - 

9 

. 

279 

Schools, ... 


. 

279 

Government, 

- 

'W 

279 

NEVADA. 

Area, . . . - 


• 

280 

Mining, . . - 


- 

280 

Soil, .... 


• 

281 

Education, ... 


• 

281 

Government, 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

• 

281 

Area, . . - - 

. 

. 

282 

Schools, ... 

. 

. 

282 

History, ... 

- 

- 

283 

Government, 

- 

• 

283 

NEW JERSEY. 

Area, .... 

. 

. 

283 

Education, ... 

. 

. 

283 

History, ... 

- 

. 

284 

Government, 

• 

- 

284 

NEW YORK. 

Area, .... 

. 

. 

285 

Education, . . - 

- 

. 

286 

History, ... 

- 

- 

286 

Government, . . - 

NORTH CAROLINA. 


287 

Area, .... 

. 

. 

288 

Schools, . . - 

. 

. 

288 

History, . . - 

. 

- 

288 

Government, 

- 

- 

289 

OHIO. 

Area, .... 

. 

. 

290 

Schools, ... 

. 

. 

290 

Government, 

- 

- 

290 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


OREGON. 


Area, - - - - 

Education, - - - 

Histoiy, - - . 

Government, 

MICHIGAN. 


Area, . - . - 

Education, - - - 

Government, 

MINNESOTA. 

Area, - - - - 

Schools, . - - 

Government, 


271 

272 
272 
272 


273 

273 

274 


274 

274 

274 


Area, . - - - 
Schools, - - . 

Government, 

PENNSYLVANIA. 


Area, . - - . 
Education, - - - 
Government, 

RHODE ISLAND. 


Area, 

Schools, 

Government, 


291 

292 

293 


293 

293 

294 


295 

295 

295 





566 


CONTENTS. 


SOUTH CAROLINA. 


Area, - - - - 

- 

. 

296 

Minerals, - - - 

- 

- 

296 

Schools, - - - 

- 

- 

296 

Government, 

- 

- 

296 

TENNESSEE. 




Area, - - - - 

. 

- 

297 

Minerals, - - - 

- 


298 

Schools, - . - 

- 

- 

298 

Government, 

- 

- 

298 

TEXAS. 




Area, - - - - 

. 

. 

299 

Education, - - - 

- 


300 

Government, 

- 

- 

300 

VERMONT. 




Area, - - - - 

- 

• 

302 

Schools, - - - 

. 

. 

302 

Government, 

- 

- 

303 

VIRGINIA. 




Area, - - - - 

. 

. 

305 

Schools, - - . 

- 

. 

305 

Government, 

- 

- 

306 

WEST VIRGINIA. 




Area, - - - - 

- 

. 

308 

Education, - - - 

- 

. 

308 

Government, 

- 

- 

308 

WISCONSIN. 




Area, - - - - 

. 

. 

310 

Education, - - - 

- 

- 

310 

Government, 

- 

- 

311 

XIV. Sketches of Territor 

•ies. 

ALASKA. 




Area and Surface, 

• 


312 

Climate, - - - 

. 

. 

312 

Vegetation, - - - 

- 

- 

313 

Purs and Fisheries, 

• 

- 

313 

Population, - - - 

- 

- 

313 

History, - - - 

- 

- 

313 

OTHER TERRITORIES. 



Arizona, - - - 

- 

• 

314 

Dakota, - - - 

- 


314 

District of Columbia, 

. 

. 

314 

Idaho, ---- 

- 

- 

315 

Montana, - - - 

. 

- 

315 

N ew Mexico, 

. 


316 

Utah, - - - - 

. 

• 

316 

Washington, • - 

. 

- 

317 

Wyoming, - - - 

- 

- 

317 

XV. Confederate States. 


General Kemarks, 

. 

. 

318 

Josiah C^uincy, 

- 

- 

319 

Missouri Compromise, 

- 

. 

319 

Negro Slavery, 

- 

- 

320 

Stephen A. Douglas, - 

- 

. 

321 

Abraham Lincoln, 

. 

. 

322 

Leadcr.ship of South Carolina, 

. 

322 

Montgomery Convention, 

- 

. 

323 

War Commenced, 

- 

. 

324 

Inauguration of Lincoln, 

- 

. 

324 

Eesponse of the North, 

- 

- 

325 


President Davis, - 

• 

• 

326 

War Measures, 


- 

32? 

The Contest in 1861, - 

• 


327 

The Contest in 1862, - 

• 

- 

329 

Affairs in New Mexico, 

- 


330 

Losses, - . - - 

- 


331 

Battle of Fair Oaks, 

. 

- 

332 

Gen. Pope’s Command, 

. 

- 

333 

Gen. Lee’s Command, 

- 


334 

Gen. Burnside, 

• 

- 

334 

Gen. Halleck, 

. 

. 

3:34 

The Contest, 

. 

335-344 

In the Wilderness, 

. 

. 

344 

Spottsylvania Court House, 

- 

345 

Western Virginia Loyal, 

- 

- 

346 

Contest in 1864, - 

. 

- 

347 

Sherman in the West, 

. 

• 

347 

Gen. Hood, - - - 

- 

* 

348 

Sherman’s March to the Sea, 

. 

349 

Gen. Canby, 

- 


350 

End of the War, - 

. 

. 

350 

Flight of Jeff'. Davis, - 

- 

• 

354 

Confederate Privateering, 

- 

- 

356 

Keview, 

. 

. 

356 

The Alabama Cruiser, 

. 

- 

358 

The “ Georgia,” - 

- 

- 

360 

The ” Shenandoah,” - 

- 

- 

360 

Other Vessels, 

. 

. 

361 

The Alabama Claims, 


- 

362 


BRITISH AJIBRICA. 

Extent, ...... 363 

Boundaries,.363 

Political Divisions, . - - 363 


DOMINION OF CANADA. 


Extent,.363 

Political Divisions, ... 363 

Boundaries, .... 334 
Surlace ol Ontario and Quebec, 364 
Farly History. 

French Canada, ... 337 
Voyages of Discovery, - - 367 

Champlain, - - - 367-373 

De Tracy,.374 

Courcelles ----- 374 
Denonville’s Administration, - 375 
Frontenac as Governor, - - 376 

French and English War, - . 378 

Treaty of Utrecht, - - - 373 

English Canada —English Eule, 379 
French Loyalty, - - - - 330 

United Empire Loyalists, - - 381 

Gen. Prescott, - - - - 332 

Sir Drummond, - - . - 332 

Lord Dalhousie, - - - - 333 

Lord Aylmer, - - - - 333 

Contlict between the People and 
Crown, - - - - 384 

Gov. Gosford, - - - - 435 

Papineau,.386 

Insurrections, - - - - 337 

Suppressing Insurrections, - 3^8 
Excitement on the Borders, - ^9 
Gen. Scott on the Frontier, - 390 



CONTEXTS. 567 


Sir Francis Head, - - - 391 

Sir James McHoimell, - - 391 

Upper and Lower Canada United, 392 

\vva Scotia. 

Surface,.393 

Discovery and Settlement, - 394 

De Monts.394 

Port Koyal,.394 

Sir David Kirk, - - . . 395 

French Possession, - - - 390 

Conquests,.390 

French and English Contest, - 397 

Cornwallis,.398 

Admiral Boscawen, - - - 400 

Population,.400 

English Possession, - - - 401 

Nova Scotia Loyal, - . - 403 

Aew JirunstvicTi. 

Surface,.404 

History, ----- 405 

First Settlement, - . - 40.5 

Sir Guy Carleton, . . - 400 

^Major Gen. Smith, - - . 400 

Governor,.400 

Boundary,.407 

Vrince lOdward Island. 

Surface,.407 

History,.407 

Called St. John, - - - - 4 O 8 

Settlement,.408 

Persecution of French, - ‘ - 40S 

Lord Egreni,>nt, - - - - 408 

Gov. Patterson, - - - - 409 

Gov. Desbanes, - - - - 409 

Dominion, 

Confederation, ... - 410 

Population, ..... 411 

Schools, 411 

Government, - - - - 411 

History, ------ 412 

Newfoundland. 

Discovery..412 

Fisheries,.413 

Settlement in 1621, - - - 413 

Calvert,.413 

History,.4x4 

liritish Columbia. 

Situation,.414 

Characteristics, - - - - 415 


ItDrUBLIC OF MEXICO. 


Natives, - 

- 415 

Hieroglyphics, 

- 416 

Cortez, - 

- 417 

Chichemccas, 

. 417 

The Aztecs, - 

- 418 

The Toltecas, 

. 420 

Painting, 

- 420 

Buildings, 

. 422 

Aqueducts, - 

- 423 

Native Kings, 

. - - - 423 


Native Government, - 



424 

Moniezuma’s Vessels, 


. 

427 

Curious Incidents, 

. 


428 

The Temple of the Sun, 

- 

- 

429 

Spanish in Mexico, 
Hernando Cortez, 


430 

Portines, ... 

. 


431 

Skill of Population, - 

- 

. 

431 

Official Money Making, 

• 

. 

432 

Commercial Privileges, 

. 


434 

Colonial Troubles, 

. 


4.35 

Creole Class, 

- 

- 

435 

Throu'inf! 

Yoke. 


Difficulties in Spain, - 



436 

Prince P’erdinand, 

. 

. 

436 

France vs. Spain, 

- 

. 

437 

Ell'ects on Mexico, 

. 


437 

Creole Loyalty, 

. 

- 

438 

Spanish Disloyalty, 

. 

- 

4:38 

lievolt in Keligion, 

. 

• 

4.38 

Insurrections, 



4:39 

Valladolid vs. Hidalgo, 

. 

. 

4:39 

Gen. Calleja, - - . 

- 

- 

440 

Horrible Crimes, - 

- 

- 

440 

The Contest, - - - 

. 

- 

440 

Morelos, . . . 

War Incidents, 

. 

. 

441 

. 

. 

442 

Battles, ... - 

- 

443-449 

Adopting a Constitution. 


First Constitution, 



449 

The Kevolutionary Struggle, 

- 

4.50 

iSIexican Independence, 

- 

. 

451 

Iturbide, ... 

. 

. 

4.52 

The Junta, - - - 

. 

. 

452 

The Abdication, - 

. 

. 

453 

New Congress in 1824, 

• 

. 

4.53 

Forming the Republic, 

- 


453 

Fate of Iturbide, - 

- 

- 

454 

The Eepublic 
President Guadaloupe, 



4.54 

President Victoria, 

• 

- 

455 

Gen. Bravo, - - - 

- 

. 

455 

Gen. Santa Anna, 

- 

- 

455 


Continuation of the Struggle, - 436 

Anarchy,.4.57 

President Pedraza, - - - 4.57 

Movements of Santa Anna, - 4.58 
Compelled to be Dictator, - - 459 

War with Texas, ... - 4()0 

Gen. Sam. Houston, ... 451 
Santa Anna’s lieverses, - - 461 

Another Junta, ... - 462 

Santa Anna as President, - - 463 

War on Texas, .... 4()3 
Contest with the United States, 465 
Closing Scenes of the War, - 465 

After the War. 

Church Property, ... 466 
Santa Anna after Banishment, - 467 
Gen. Alvarez, .... 468 
Gen Comonfort, .... 468 
Political Strife, ... 469-4(4 








568 


CONTENTS. 


Law of Reform. 


Present History, ... 

. 

474 

Lerdo, . - . . - 

- 

475 

Maximilian, .... 


476 

General Election, 1867, 

- 

477 

Sudden Death of Juarez, - 

. 

478 

X..erdo as President, 

. 

478 

Schools, .... 

- 

478 

CENTRAL AAIERICA. 


Situation and Extent, - 

. 

479 

Surface,. 

- 

480 

Seasons, - - - . 

. 

480 

Divisions, ... - 

- 

480 

Guatemala. 

Early Settlement, 


480 

Volcanoes, . - - - 

- 

481 

New Guatemala, - - - 

• 

481 

Trade, - ... - 

- 

482 

Honduras. 

First Settlement, 

. 

482 

Boundaries, - - . - 

. 

483 

Surface,. 

Kesources, - . - - 

Lack of Industry, 

. 

483 

- 

484 

- 

484 

Rritish Honduras, 

Area,. 

. 

485 

Population, . - - - 

. 

485 

Industries, .... 

• 

485 

Costa Rica. 

Population, - - - - 

. 

485 

Exploration, ... - 

- 

485 

Kesources, .... 

. 

487 

Trade, . - - - - 


487 

Army, . - - - . 

- 

487 

Nicaragua. 

Discovery, - - . . 

- 

488 

Subtiaba, .... 

- 

488 

Leon, ..... 

. 

488 

Churches, .... 

. 

489 

Industries, .... 

. 

489 

Granada, .... 

- 

489 

San Salvador. 

Exploration, .... 

. 

490 

Area, ..... 

. 

4tl0 

Cities, ..... 

. 

490 

Industries, .... 

. 

490 

Governinent. ... 

. 

491 


SOUTH AMERICA. 

Rrazil. 


Ai’ffentine Republic. 


Discovery, ... 

- 

. 496 

Natives, ... 

- 

- 496 

Early Settlement, 

. 

- 496 

Early Wars, 

- 

- 497 

Rivadiva, ... 

. 

- 498 

Present Prospects, 

- 

- 499 

Jiolivia. 

Natives, ... 

. 

- 5t)0 

Early Settlement, 

- 

- 500 

Minerals, ... 

- 

- 501 

Historj', ... 

- 

501-502 

United States of Colombia. 

Population, ... 


- 508 

Colonization, 

- 

- 504 

States, . . . - 

. 

- 505 

Present Condition, 

- 

- 505 

Ecuador. 

Quito, .... 

. 

- 505 

History and Description, 

- 

505-510 

Chili. 

History and Description, 

- 

510-514 

Guiana. 

History and Description, 

- 

514-517 

Urugua. 

History and Description, 

- 

517-518 

Venezuela. 

History and Description, 

- 

518-520 

Raraguay. 

History and Description, 

- 

520-522 

Rcru. 

History and Description, 

- 

522-527 


Ratfiffouiaand Falhland. 


History and Description, - 

527-528 

West Indies. 

History and Description, - 

528-530 

Hayti, 

History and Description, - 

530-537 

Santo Domingo. 

History and Description, . 

537-541 

Cuba. 

History and Description, - 

541-549 

Porto Rico, ... 

- 549 

Jamaica, .... 

- 550 

Barbadoes, ... 

- 554 

Antigua, .... 

. 554 

Bermuda Islands, - 

- 555 

Dominica, .... 

- 555 

Grenada, .... 

- 556 

Bahamas, .... 
Martinique, etc., 

Danish Possessions, 

- 557 

- 558 

- 559 

Dutch Possessions, - 

- 559 


Discovery,.491 

Natives,.492 

Portuguese, - . . . 49:3 

Espirito iSanto, - . . . 493 

bettlemeut of Brazil, - - - 4!14 

Don Pedro,.494 

War,.495 


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